HAHOLO B. Lui BRJOHAM YOUNG ^
Library OF Vasco M. lanne^
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GAIUS JULIUS CAESAJ^ From a bust in the British M' seum
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CAESAR'S Gallic War
WITH INTEODUCTION, NOTES, VOCABULARY AND GEAMMATICAL APPENDIX
BY
ARTHUR TAPPAX WALKER, Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
A REVISION OF THE EDITION BY
C. M. LOWE, Ph.D., AND J. T, EWING, M.Ao
CHICAGO— NEW YORK SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPAN'Y
COPYRIGHT, 1907
BY
SCOTT. FORESMAN AND COMPANY
P. F. Pettibone & Co.
Printers and Binders
Ctiicago
noUf'^PJ-^ B. LEE LIBRARY WWGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY
PREFACE
In its general plan the present edition of Caesar is based on that of Lowe and Ewing, first published in 1891. It retains the features which gave distinction to that book, the most important of which are thus described in its preface:
" The vocabularies, notes, illustrations, and explanatory matter have been placed on the same page with the text, thus saving the student's time, which is uselessly spent in turning leaves and searching for expla- nations which are here placed immediately before him. At the same time, self-reliance is secured by the use of a separate text in the class room, without either notes or vocabulary. The special vocabularies have been arranged so that the first four books and the rest of the anno- tated text may be read consecutively, or the war with Ariovistus (Bk. I, chaps. 30-54) may be omitted and the valuable and less familiar, matter substituted from the annotated chapters of Bks. V-VII. An opportunity for sight reading is afforded in the unannotated parts of these latter books,''
While the general plan of the earlier edition has been followed, in all details the book has been rewritten from beginning to end. In its preparation three definite purposes have been kept steadily in mind:
1. To help the pupil to follow the narrative understandingly.
2. To give the pupil, especially at the beginning of his reading, a systematic drill on all the common syntactical principles.
3. To exclude all bits of antiquarian and grammatical lore which, however valuable in themselves, have no direct bearing on an appreciation of Caesar's language or story.
The Study of Caesar's Narrative. It is surely a pedagogical
mistake to let a pupil carry away from the study of Caesar nothing
but a memory of ablatives absolute and indirect discourse. These
things he must learn as a preparation for further reading, it is true,
and the language must be his chief study; but there is danger that
1
2 PREFACE
a year of grammar only will not tempt him to the further reading for which he has been preparing. Caesar tells an interesting story and tells it well. The universal testimony of the ages to the greatness of his writing is not founded on a universal love for grammar. The interest in findino; out what Caesar did should serve as an incentive to solve his sentences. Moreover, a neglect of Caesar's thought is wrong on principle. The habit of careful attention to the subject- matter is the one thing best worth cultivating, whether one reads English or a foreign language; and this should not be forgotten in teaching Caesar.
Therefore as much as possible has been done in the notes and maps to assist in an understanding of the narrative, without intro- ducing any discussion of disputed points. Every effort has been made to adopt the most reasonable theory for each campaign, and to make every note, plan, and map consistent with that theory.
The pupil's progress through the story must be slow^ and, how- ever well he understands each move in Caesar's game, he will have difficulty in grasping the whole. It is hoped that the campaign maps may lessen this difficulty by putting before the eyes the total results of the campaigns. In each map the route is laid out on a map of all Gaul, because only in this w^ay can the relation of any one campaign to the whole of Caesar's task be kept constantly be- fore the mind. The system of coloring shows the condition of Gaul at the end of each campaign, — how much had been reduced by fighting, how much had yielded without fighting, and how much was yet untouched. A comparison of any two maps will show the results of the intervening operations.
System in Graimmar References. An attempt has been made to facilitate and even insure, early in the study of Caesar, a syste- matic drill on the more important case and mode constructions. In the notes on Book I, 1-29, it is believed that references are given for all the most common constructions. In general, the cases are emphasized during the earlier chapters, and the modes during the later. To each construction reference is made three times, two
PREFACE o
sets of references being given close together, that they may re- enforce each other, and the third after a few chapters, that the point may be cUnched by review. And these references are made not only to the grammatical Appendix given in this book, but also to live leading grammars.
In Book II the same references are given, as nearly as possible in the same order; but the references for each chapter are grouped together after the notes of that chapter. In this way opportunities for the same grammatical drill are afforded, whether the class be- gins with Book I or Book II; but, if the class begins with Book I, these references in Book II may be omitted as unnecessary.
With such a system it is natural and right to postpone to later chapters or books the consideration of certain constructions. Thus, conditions and the details of indirect discourse are post- poned to Book I, 30-54, tenses to Book III. If the teacher does not like the order of presentation he can easily supply needed refer- ences; but if he will insist on the study of the references as they come in the notes, it is believed that he will find the necessary ground covered thoroughly and systematically.
Exclusion of Non-essentials. Many things are known or are guessed about ancient military science which in no way help the pupil to understand Caesar. Many facts and theories of grammar are suggested by Caesar's language which the pupil might find use- ful at some later day, but which help him neither in translating Caesar nor in writing the Latin composition which should accom- pany the reading. An honest attempt has been made to give what is helpful and to exclude the useless lumber, though it is not hoped, much less expected, that all teachers would draw the line where the editor has drawn it.
Beginning with Book II. The most dreaded portions of Caesar are his indirect discourse, and unfortunately the majority of the speeches are found in the first book. Though the fear of indirect discourse is largely traditional, and though the construction is not really difficult for one who is properly grounded in the essentials of Latin, yet it is clearly a misfortune that the pupil should en-
4 PREFACE
counter its full difficulties at a time when the ordinary narrative gives him trouble enough. Moreover, it is questionable whether it is worth while to drill the pupil on all details of the construction, since he will see very little indirect discourse elsewhere in his pre- paratory course. For these reasons many teachers seek to make the pupil's path easier by reading the second book before the first, or by omitting chapters 30-54 of the first book, in which chapters the construction chiefly abounds. In preparing this edition every- thing possible has been done to make feasible either of these plans, without throv/ing any obstacles in the way of a consecutive reading from the first. But the editor feels strongly that Book I, 1-29 should be read first. The latter part of the book may well be omitted entirely, and one or more of the very interesting annotated portions of the last three books may be substituted for it.
No editor of Caesar can escape a debt of gratitude to Mr. T. Rice Holmes for having discussed with such impartiality and thoroughness the geof^raphical and military questions of the Gallic War. Caesar s Conquest of Gaul, by Mr. Holmes, should be in the hands of every teacher of Caesar, Though the present editor has found it impossible to agree with all its conclusions, the book is so fair in its discussions that he is under equal obligations whether he agrees or disagrees with the author.
The text of the Lowe and Ewing edition was Kraner^s. In the present edition Meusel's readings have been substituted for the most part, but not completely. The quantities are marked in ac- cordance with the revised edition of Lane's Grammar. A few doubtful words were submitted to the decision of Professor Hanns Oertel, of Yale University, who prepared the chapter on Sound in that Grammar. For his ready assistance, thanks are due. , It would be impossible to mention by name all who have assisted the editor by suggestion and in various ways. The labor of prepar- ing the Vocabulary was largely performed by Mr. Earl W. Murray, a former graduate student, now Assistant Professor in the Univer- sity of Kansas. Mr. Murray also prepared the first draft of the systematized references for Book I, 1-29, and Book II. For the
PREFACE 6
preparation of the Index the editor is indebted to Miss Martha Whitney. Professor Charles Knapp, of Columbia University, gave the early part of the book the benefit of a most searching and helpful criticism. From beginning to end the editor has been under deep obligations to the editors-in-chief of the series.
Arthur Tappan Walker.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface 1
List of Maps and Illustrations 8
Introduction 9
I. The Importance of the Gallic Campaigns 9
II. Life of Caesar 11
III. Chronological Table 17
IV. Caesar as General 18
V. Caesar as Author 19
VI. The Gauls 20
VII. Caesar's Army 23
A Brief Bibliography 38
List of Abbreviations 40
Book I, 1-29 41
Book I, 30-54 115
Book II 160
Book III 215
Book IV , 252
Book V „ 292
Book VI 329
Book VII 356
The Direct Form of the Indirect Discourse in Books I an<l II . . .412
Grammatical Appendix 42S
Vocabulary
Index
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
General Map of Gaul Front Cover
Caesar (Bust, in British Museum) Frontispiece
Pila 24
Gladius and Vagina 24
lioman Soldiers Facing 27
Plan of a Roman Camp 29
Camp on the Axona 29
Vallum and Fossa 30
Roman Officers and Gauls Facing 31
Gallic Wall 33
Storming a City Facing 34
Agger 34
Plutei 34
Muscul'\s 34
Vinea 35
Catapulta 35
Prow of Galley 36
Campaign Map for Book I, 1-29 Facing 42
Fortifications on the Rhone 70
Battle with the Helvetii, first stage 104
Battle with the Helvetii, second stage 108
Campaign Map for Book I, 30-54 Facing 117
Battle with Ariovistus . . . .* 153
Campaign Map for Book II Facing 162
Battle on the Axona 177
Battle on the Sabis • • .♦ 191
The Town of the Atuatuci '. 207
Campaign Map for Book III Facing 217
Galba's Camp . 219
Operations against the Veneti 232
Campaign Map for Book IV Facing 254
Caesar's Bridge 272
Pile-driver 273
Second Invasion of Britain 294
Caesar's Geography , 305
Caesar's Lines around Alef-^ia 392
Details of Fortifications around Alesia 396
Stimulus 398
8
INTRODUCTION
I. The Importance of the Gallic Campaigns
The Commentaries on the Gallic War are Caesar's own story i of how he conquered the peoples living in what is now France and some of the lands bordering on France. He has told his story simply and directly. It was his genius that made the conquest possible, and the story could not be true without making this evident; but he has spoken of himself as if the writer and the general were different men, and there is no boasting. He has not explained to us the great importance of the war to the Roman state; there is no suggestion of its importance to his personal career; much less has he hinted at his own importance in the history of Rome and the world. These things must be learned from a study of history, not from : Caesar's story.
Effect on Rome. Rome was the governing nation of ancient 2 times. In Caesar's time she had conquered the other nations which touched the Mediterranean, and was governing most of them as provinces; that is, she sent Roman governors to them and collected taxes from them. In this way she governed a comparatively narrow strip of land in southern Gaul; and as this was the particular province which Caesar was sent to govern, he calls it simply ''the Province," Provincia (see map). This province was only partially protected by mountains and rivers from the semicivilized and warlike Gauls on the north; and for this reason it could never be sure of peace and safety until the rest of Gaul was conquered. Moreover, the land on the north was productive and well worth having.
10 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
Therefore Caesar's conquest of Gaul was justified, from a Roman point of view, both by the value of the land and by the neces- sity of protecting the Province.
EflFect on Gaul. But there was a better reason for that con- quest. Though the Gauls were brave they were no match for the less civilized Germans, who lived across the Rhine. Just at the time when Caesar took command of his province the Germans had begun crossing the Ehine in great numbers and were driving the Gauls out of their homes. If this move- ment had not been checked, the homeless Gauls would have been driven to attack Eoman territory; and if the Gauls had been exterminated between the Germans and the Romans, then the Romans would have found the Germans still more dangerous neighbors than the Gauls. For the Gauls them- selves, too, it was far better to be conquered by the civilized Romans than by the uncivilized Germans. The one means of safety for both Gauls and Romans was that the Romans should govern all the country west of the Rhine and should hold the Germans at bay on the other side of that great river. This was the result of Caesar's conquest of Gaul; and this result is the great justification of his bloody warfare there.
Effect on Caesar. In their effect on Caesar's own career the Gallic campaigns were all-important, and his career changed the course of history. In Gaul he gained military experience and the devotion of his army. By the aid of that army he over- threw a constitution under which the Roman state was going to ruin, and laid the foundations of an empire which lived for centuries. No doubt he did this from selfish and ambitious motives; but his ambition was so great that it could never have been satisfied until ho had brought the empire he ruled to the highest possible degree of excellence, and his genius was so great that he saw the needful measures and the means to carry them out. The daggers of his assassins gave liim too short a time to complete his work; but he did enough to prove himself tlie greatest man in Roman history.
LIFE OF CAESAR 11
11. Life of Caesar
Early Years, and Choice of Party. Gains Julius Caesar was a born in the year^ 102, B.C., on the 12th day of the month which was then called Quintilis, but which we now, in his honor, call July. Tradition traced the descent of the Julian family back beyond the foundation of Rome, and eyen to the goddess Venus as its remote ancestor Caesar, therefore, belonged to the Eoman nobility, and in the continuous strife between the Senatorial, or Aristocratic, and the Democratic parties, might have been expected to side with the aristocrats. But none of his own family had been very conspicuous in the state, and his aunt had married Marius, the greatest leader of the Democratic party, the great general who had saved Rome by his victories over the Cimbri and Teutoni. It was natural that his ambition should be fired by his uncle's career, and that his sympathies should incline toward the Democratic party. When he was only fifteen Marius made him priest of Jupiter, an office of some honor and few duties; and in 83, after the death of Marius, he deliberately identified himself with the Democratic party by marrying Cornelia, the daughter of tlie new leader of that party, Cinna.
Overthrow of Caesar's Party. But the power of the Demo- 6 cratic party was almost at an end. In 83 Sulla, the leader of the Aristocratic party, returned to Italy with his victorious army, after fighting for several years against Mithradates, in the East. A bloody contest drove the Democrats from power; and in 82 the victor, determined to make a revival of that party impossible, slaughtered its eminent men and so changed the constitution of the state that the Senate was in full con- trol. The young Caesar, as nephew of Marius and son-in- law of Cinna, was too conspicuous to be overlooked. Sulla ordered him to divorce Cornelia. Caesar refused, and had to flee for his life until influential friends persuaded Sulla to
» Or perhaps in the year 100 B.C.
12 CAESAR^S GALLIC WAR
pardon him. Sulla's grudging consent is said to have been coupled with the warning that Caesar would prove as dangerous as many Mariuses.
7 Weakness of Opposite Party. But the form of government set up by Sulla did not stand long, and the years which fol- low^ed his death m^ide more and more clear the need of some strong man who should give order and stability to the state. During those same years Caesar was testing and developing the powers which were to make him the man to do this work.
8 Revival of Caesar's Party. When Sulla died, in 78, the Sen- ate was in complete control: the Democratic party had neither a leader nor any chance to use its strength. Gradually the Senate lost this control, until, in 70, under the consuls Pom- pey and Crassus, the changes made by Sulla were completely done away with and the Democratic party again had an oppor- tunity^ if it could but find a leader. For a time Pompey seemed likely to be this leader. In 66 the people, contrary to the wishes of the Senatorial party, elected him general to serve against Mithradates. This gave him supreme control in Asia Minor, but kept him out of Rome for the next four years.
9 Development of Caesar's Powers. During all this time Caesar was developing his powers of leadership. He got a taste of military service in Asia Minor, and at twenty-two he won the civic crown of oak leaves for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle; but as yet he seems to have had no thought of gain- ing distinction as general. A born politician, he loved the game of politics for its own sake as well as for its rewards. An excellent orator, both by nature and by training, he used his oratorical powers in furthering the plans of his party. He made friends easily, and his influence over them was strong. Therefore, before he was old enough to take office he was a great favorite with the people and a much sought for ally in political scheming; and at the earliest age permitted bylaw he was elected without difficulty to the offices of Quaestor (for 68), Aedile (for 65), and Praetor (for 62). The greatest test
LIFE OF CAESAR 13
of his popularity came in 63, when the office of Pontifex Maximus fell vacant and Caesar was elected to this most Ijonorable position over the strongest candidate the Senatorial party could put forward.
Caesar's First Military Command. But in spite of his ability lo and popularity, in the year 03 Caesar was thought of as only a shrewd politician. Rome looked upon Pompey as her greatest man, because he was her greatest general; and Caesar knew that if he should come into conflict with Pompey his shrewd- ness could never prove a match for Pompey's army and gen- eralship. Caesar felt that he too must be a general, but he did ]]ot know whether he could be; for he had never had an oppor- tunity to try his powers. The opportunity offered itself in 61, when he w^as sent to govern a part of Spain. There he fought with great success against some of the native tribes. His victories were not very important in themselves, and they attracted no great attention in Rome; but they showed Caesar what he could do and made him anxious for a larger field of operations.
Caesar's Consulship. Caesar now wanted the consulship, the 11 highest office in the state: if he got it he intended to carry through some measures w^hich would be opposed by the Sena- torial party. He therefore needed strong friends. Pompey bad returned in triumph from the war with Mithradates, but the Senate had refused to grant some reasonable requests which ho had made of it. Crassus too had a grievance against the Senate. With these two men Caesar made a secret agreement that each should further the interests of the others; and thus Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed what is known in history as the First Triumvirate, a mere personal agreement, with no public sanction. The influence of Pompey and Crassus helped in securing Caesar's election to the consulship for the year 59, and also assisted him, when consul, in passing measures which were for the advantage of each of the three allies. For him- self Caesar took a five-year term of office as governor of Cisal-
14 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
pine Gaul (the northern part of Italy), lUyricum (north and east of the Adriatic Sea), and Transalpine Gaul (then including only the southern part of France). To protect these provinces he was given an army of four legions.
12 Caesar's Command in GauL In 58, therefore, Caesar entered upon his command. Partly because it was best for the prov- ince and the state (cf. 2 and 3), and partly because he needed the training and the reputation of a general (cf. 10), he deter- mined to conquer all the rest of Gaul. How he did this he tells us himself in the Commentaries; and a brief summary pre- fixed to each book in this edition makes it unnecessary to tell the story here. Since he found the five years originally given him too short for the full accomplishment of his purpose, he secured an additional five years. By the year 50 the last trace of resistance to Roman authority had been crushed, and Caesar's great task w^as completed. Moreover, he now had a perfectly disciplined, veteran army, enthusiastically devoted to its leader.
13 Outbreak of Civil War. It was high time that Caesar should have his hands free, for a greater task lay before him. For several years Pompey and Crassus had looked out for his inter- ests in Rome. But in 53 Crassus was killed in battle; and at about the same time Pompey began to feel jealous of Caesar's success and fearful of his power. lie gradually turned away from Caesar and attached himself to the Senatorial ])arty, which had always hated Caesar. On the first day of the year 49 the Senate voted that Caesar should lay down his command and return to Rome as a private citizen, though the time for which the command had been given him had not yet expired. Caesar was then in Cisalpine Gaul, and his reply was an immediate march toward Rome.
14 Weakness of the Constitutional Government. But during Caesar's absence from Rome the complete failure of the consti- tutional form of government had shown that the so-called republic could not exist much longer. Trials and elections were decided by bribery and bloodshed. The governing party
LIFE OF CAESAR , 15
had been so weak that for one entire year a succession of riots had prevented the holding of elections. Now when it was attacked by Caesar it again showed its weakness. Although it had taken steps which were sure to bring on civil war it had done nothing to prepare for that war, except to appoint Pom- pey its commander-in-chief. In about two months from the time when Caesar marched into northern Italy, Pompey set sail from southern Italy with his army and most of the Senate, leaving Rome and Italy in Caesar's hands.
Civil War Makes Caesar Master of Rome. But the hardest 15 fighting of his life lay before Caesar. Pompey had crossed the Adriatic only to gain time for preparation. Besides, while Pom- pey's strong army lay on the cast of Italy, there was another large army of Caesar's enemies in Spain, on the west. But Caesar's magnificent army and wonderful generalship carried him through all difficulties. In 49 he marched to Spain and defeated his enemies there. In 48 he followed Pompey across the Adriatic and utterly routed his army in the great battle of Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt and was assas- sinated by order of the counselors of the Egyptian king. Caesar followed 4iim to Egypt with an insufficient force and was blockaded for several months in the city of Alexandria by the Egyptian army. Meanwhile the remnants of Pompey's army made their way to the northern coast of Africa, and a new army was there organized to oppose Caesar. In 46 Caesar defeated this army too, at Thapsus, so decisively that he is said to have lost but fifty men while fifty thousand of the enemy fell. Then the sons of Pompey rallied the last opponents of Caesar, in Spain, for a final struggle, and Caesar's victory at Munda in 45 made him the undisputed master of the Roman world.
Caesar as Statesman. Caesar was no mere soldier, and it was 16 from no choice of his own that he spent all these years in fighting. He became a general because that was the only way to achieve his purpose of becoming sole ruler of Rome. But that purpose was not prompted wholly by personal ambition.
16 CAESAK & GALLIC WAR
He had begun as a politician and had matured into a great statesman. There had been many abuses in the state, and the civil war had brought in confusion as welL With characteristic energy and clear-sightedness he set himself to bring order out of chaos, to organize the whole empire, and to improve its details. To carry out this work he needed the ])est men in the state, regardless of party: hence he pardoned those who had fought against him and gave some of them positions of high honor and great responsibility. He reformed the calendar. He took measures to remedy the financial disorders of the country. He planned a codification of the laws. He intended to carry out some great engineering feats, among others the cutting of a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. In order to protect the frontiers of the empire he planned military expeditions against the Parthians and the nations along the Danube. 17 Assassination of Caesar. Such enormous plans needed time for their execution, and time was denied to Caesar. A form of government which had stood for centuries could not be over- thrown without grieving some true lovers of their country. One man could not make himself the master of all others, who had previously been his equals, without arousing jealousy. One man could not select the men to fill all offices without disap- pointing many. Men of all these classes, patriots, would-be rivals, and disappointed office seekers, joined in a conspiracy, and on the fifteenth of March, 44 n.c, Caesar fell beneath their daggers while presiding over a meeting of the Senate. The history of the following years shows the folly of this murder. For theniselves the assassins reaped only death, since in a very few years every one whose fate is known had died by violence. For the state the deed was equally disastrous, since the assassin- ation of Caesar merely caused a bloody civil war to intervene between his rule and that of Augustus.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 17
Caesar's HI- CHRONOLOGICAL TaBLE
Age.
Birth of Caesar, July 12. Marius defeats the Teutoni. 13
1 Marius defeats the Cimbri.
15 Marius appoints Caesar Priest of Jupiter.
16 Death of Marius. Cinna is Dictator.
19 Caesar marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, the Dictator.
20 Sulla becomes perpetual Dictator. He proscribes and
pardons Caesar. Caesar leaves Rome for the East.
80 22 Caesar wins the civic crown at Mytilene.
78 24 Sulla dies. Caesar returns to Rome.
76 26 Caesar sails to Rliodes to study under Molo.
74 28 Caesar is elected Military Tribune and Pontifex.
70 32 Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. The SuUan constitu- tion is overthrown.
68 84 Caesar is Quaestor.
65 37 Caesar is Ciirule Aedile.
63 39 Caesar is elected Praetor and Pontifex Maximus. Cioero is Consul. Conspiracy of Catiline exposed.
62 40 Caesar is Praetor. Pompey returns from the East
61 41 Caesar is Propraetor in Farther Spain.
60 42 Caesar is elected Consul. "First Triumvirate" is formed.
59 43 Caesar is Consul. He marries Calpurnia.
58 44 Caesar becomes Proconsul of Gaul. Campaigns against the Helvetii and Ariovistus. Cicero is exiled.
57 45 Caesar conquers the Belgae. Recall of Cicero.
56 46 Caesar's campaign in Brittany.
55 47 Caesar invades Britain and Germany. Pompey and Crassus are joint Consuls for the second time.
54 48 Caesar invades Britain a second time. Death of Julia.
53 49 The northeastern Gauls rebel. Crassus is slain.
52 50 General revolt of the Gauls. Alienation of Pompey.
51 51 Caesar completes the conquest of Gaul.
50 52 The quarrel between Caesar and the Senate.
49 53 Civil War. Caesar is made Dictator.
48 54 Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey is killed in Egypt. The *' Alexandrian War."
47 55 Caesar, again Dictator, reorganizes the government.
46 56 The "African War." The Pompeians defeated at Thapsus.
45 57 The "Spanish War." Battle of Munda.
44 58 Caesar Dictator for life. Assassinated March 15th.
18 CAESAR^S GALLIC WAR
IV. Caesar as General
19 The Commentaries present Caesar to our view as a military leader of the first rank, and yet he had reached middle life before he held an independent command. During his youth, when the fascinations of "war's wild trade" may have attracted him, all the channels to military preferment were closed to him on account of his connection with the Marian party. When he finally turned his attention to war, he brought the calm calculation of the man of affairs seeking to accomplish certain desirable ends through its agency. Neither the charm nor the traditions of camp and field life held sway over his mind. Love of military glory alone never lured him on, nor was the sweep of his genius hampered by the shackles of an exclusively military training.
20 Characteristics as General. The Commentaries reveal his method. He clearly conceived the object desired and took the most direct way possible to reach it. When it best suited his purpose he was deliberate and cautious, watching for the best opportunity to strike a crushing blow. Yet in an emergency he would coolly carry out the most daring plans, so that he sometimes appears even reckless; but this apparent recklessness was the result of swift and unerring decision, based on a keen insight into the character and probable action of his opponents. He always took the offensive and endeavored to concentrate his force and strike the enemy unexpectedly. He made up by quickness of movement for his lack of numbers. In battle he vras cool and confident. He was devoid of fear, and when necessary fought in the foremost ranks. If the enemy fled he pursued him vigorously with his cavalry, slaughtering without mercy as long as a man was to be reached. He was sometimes cruel from policy, though naturally clement.
21 Power over his Men. Caesar won the entire devotion of his army, and this was one of the secrets of his success. He was careful of the comfort and lives of his men. He saw
CAESAR AS AUTHOR 19
to it that they had an abundance of supplies. He cautioned them against unnecessary risk in battle, and sometimes refused to allow them to fight in dangerous places even when they wished to do so. He ruled by tact rather than by fear. He gen- erously rewarded their valor and fidelity, and knew how to rouse them on occasion to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. But such statements only partially account for his ascendency over their minds. He possessed in tlie fullest measure that combination of natural qualities which makes a man a born leader. Therefore his army was the obedient instrument of his will and endured unexampled hardships without a murmur.
V. Caesar as Author
Caesar's genius was many-sided, and he might have been no 22 less eminent as an orator and an author than as a statesman and a general, if he had chosen those fields of activity for their own sake. Even as it was, though he spoke and wrote mainly for political effect, he was recognized by his contempo- raries as an orator second only to Cicero, and the simplicity, clearness, and terseness of his Commentaries have made them a classic from his day to our ow^n. In the purity of their Latinity they rank with Cicero's works as the best that have come down to us. The interest of the narrative and the quality of the generalship shown in it have made the book a favorite with some of the world's greatest generals. The great Napoleon, for example, recommended it to his officers ^A\d himself wrote an abstract of it.
Purpose in Writing the Commentaries on the Gallic War. 23 Yet the book was written hastily, probably in the winter of 52-51, after the events narrated in Book VII; and it was written for a political purpose. Absent from Eome and deprived of his two chief supporters by the death of Crassus and the alienation of Pompey, Caesar wished to put himself in a good light before the Roman people. With such a purpose
20 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
he might have been expected to misstate some facts; and there have been many attempts to show that he did so. But a fair examination of these attempts shows that not one of them is well-founded. There may be occasional mistakes, where Caesar was forced to rely on information furnished him by the Gauls; but it can not bo proved that there is a single inten- tional false statement in the whole work.
24 Caesar's Other Writings. In addition to the Commentates on the Gallic War, in seven books, we have Caesar's Com- mentaries on the Civil War, in three books. Besides these we know of other works, now lost. We hear of some poetry and a collection of jests. He wrote a treatise on grammar while traveling rapidly from Rome to Spain. He wrote a treatise on astronomy when he reformed the calendar. He wrote an attack on Cato to counteract the effect of certain books which in praising Cato attacked Caesar. All this shows his versatility; but probably no one of these works would have been very valuable if it had been preserved.
VI. The Gauls
25 First Appearance of the Gauls in History. Some seven centuries before Christ, a tali, fair-haired race of men, the Gauls, began crossing the Rhine and conquering the original inhabitants of the country on its west. In time they overran everything as far as the Pyrenees, partly destroying the original inhabitants, partly uniting with them. About live centuries before Christ they began crossing the Alps and settling in northern Italy, and in 390 B.C. they took Rome and burned it. Rome was then but a small city, governing only the part of Italy which immediately surrounded it.
26 First Decline of Gallic Power. But from that time on the power of Rome increased and that of the Gauls decreased. A little more than two centuries before Christ, after desperate fighting, the Romans conquered and held northern Italy, Cisalpine Gaul. Again in the years from 123 to 118 there was
t
THE GAULS 21
»
hard fighting with Gaiils, and at the end Rome controlled that part of Gaul which Caesar calls Provincia (see 2).
Invasion of Cimbri and Teutoni. In 113 began the invasion 27 of the Cimbri and Teutoni, the most terrible danger of Rome since the day when the Gauls burned the city. It is not known whether they were Germans or Gauls, and probably the Romans of the time did not discriminate between the two races. They crossed the Rhine with their women and children, and marched slowly through Gaul, leaving a waste wherever they had passed. Several Roman armies met them and were cut to pieces. At last they made ready to invade Italy, the Teutoni by the western Alps, the Cimbri by the eastern. But the great Marius was now in command of a Roman army. In 102 he met the Teutoni and destroyed them. In 101 he joined the other Roman army and destroyed the Cimbri.
Geographical Divisions of Gaul in Caesar's Time. In Caesar's 28 time Cisalpine Gaul was almost as Roman as any other part of Italy. From it Caesar recruited his legions and levied new ones; and later he gave its inhabitants the right of Roman citi- zenship. The Province was peaceable and loyal to Rome, although the AUobroges had rebelled only a few years before. Caesar's task was the subjugation of all the rest of the Gauls, the inhabitants of all the country lying north of the Prov- ince and west of the Rhine. This is the country which he calls Gallia. However, he divides it into three parts and often uses the name Gallia of only the great central part, Gallia Celtica, where the Gallic stock was purest. In the south- western part, Aquitania, fewer of the Gallic invaders had settled, and the population consisted largely of descendants of the original inhabitants. In the northeastern part, Belgium, Ger- mans had settled in large numbers.
Factions in Gaul. If Caesar had found Gaul a compact 29 nation his task would have been more difficult than it was. But faction and division seem to have been a part of the Gallic nature, and he took advantage of this characteristic. Gaul
22 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
was cut up into many small states, each feeling itself right- fully independent. These states fought frequently with one another, and the weaker of them were either forced into dependence on the stronger or voluntarily attached themselves to stronger states for protection. In this way loose leagues or confederations were formed, between which rivalry and war- fare went on. In Gallia Celtica the chief confederations were the one headed by the Ilaedui and the one formerly headed by the Arverni, but in Caesar's time headed by the Sequani. But the evils of faction did not stop here. The individual states, for the most part, had no strong governments. Appar- ently most of them had been governed by kings one or two generations before Caesar's time; but a series of revolutions had generally abolished the kingly office and had substituted magistrates elected yearly. The real power lay in the hands of rich nobles, or equites as Caesar calls them. Each of these nobles lived surrounded by numerous slaves and retainers; and as there was no power strong enough to keep them in order, individual nobles or leagues of nobles sometimes pushed their continuous rivalries to the point of civil war.
30 Caesar's Use of the Gallic Factions. This factional spirit was of great assistance to Caesar, for he usually found means to attach one faction or the other to himself. For example, at the outset he found two factions in the state of the Haedui, headed by two brothers, Diviciacus, friendly to the Romans, and Dumnorix, hostile to them. By strengthening Diviciacus and checking Dumnorix he secured the help of the state. The state was the leader of one of the two leagues in Celtic Gaul, and Caesar thus secured the submission of all the states in that league without fighting for it. In fact, not only did he have their passive submission, but he obtained from them provisions and men to use in conquering other parts of Gaul.
31 Gallic Civilization. The details of the Gallic manners and customs can be learned best from Chapters 11-20 of Book VI. It will be enough to say here that in Caesar's time the Gauls
CAESAR'S ARMY 23
were not wild barbarians, but had attained a considerable degree of civilization. They had long passed the stage of roaming about from one part of the country to another; though we find, in the first book of the Commentaries, that for special reasons the Helvetii intended to leave their homes and find new ones. They had roads and bridges and towns of considerable size, fortified by well built walls.
VII. Caesar's Army
THE LEGIONS
The legions formed the strength of Caesar's army. When 32 the enemy met him in hand to hand battle the legions bore the brunt of the fighting and won him the victory. But since they consisted of heavily armed, and therefore comparatively slow, foot soldiers, and since their weapons were useless at any con- siderable distance, the legions needed the assistance of cavalry and light-armed infantry, to complete their success.
Organization of the Legion. In theory a legion consisted of 33 6000 men; but battles, accidents, and disease so reduced this number that Caesar's legions probably averaged about 4000 men, or even less. The following table gives the divisions oi a legion and their theoretical strength :
|
century [centum, hundred" |
= 100 men |
|
2 centuries = 1 maniple |
= 200 men |
|
3 maniples = 1 cohort |
= 600 men |
|
10 cohorts = 1 legion |
= 6000 men |
In theory, again, the legions were made up of Roman citizens; but in fact a large part of Caesar's legionary soldiers came from Cisalpine Gaul, which had not yet received the right of citizen- ship. However, it was thoroughly Romanized, and, in spirit at least, Caesar's legionaries were Roman citizens.
24
CAESAR^S GALLIC WAR
EQUIPMENT OF THE LEGIONARY SOLDIER
34
35
36
a.
(Plate I) A sleeveless woolen shirt, reaching nearly to
Clothing.
the knees.
b. Tight-fitting leather trousers, or perhaps merely bandages wrapped about the legs.
c. Shoes or sandals.
d. A heavy cloak for bad weather. This served also as a blanket at night.
Armor, a. A helmet of leather (galea) or metal (cassis).
b. A leather coat (lorica), strengthened by bands of metal across the shoulders, breast, and back.
c, A curved wooden shield (scutum), covered v/ith leather, and having a metal boss in the center. It was about four feet
. high and two and a half feet wide.
Ik d' Perhaps a greave on the right leg, though Caesar
does not mention it. This v/as very much like a foot- ball shin-guard, but made of metal.
Arms, a, A heavy wooden javelin (pilum. Fig. 1), with a long iron point which was strong enough to pierce any armor but was likely to bend as it did
a J so. Therefore it could not easily be withdrawn when it had pierced a shield, and could not be thrown back by the enemy. After the battle the Javelins were gathered and straightened by the Romans. Each soldier carried but one javelin.
b. A straight, heavy, two-edged sword (gladius. Fig. 2), about two feet long, adapted for either cutting or thrusting. Its scabbard (vagina) hung from a belt Fig. 2
(balteus) which passed over the left ^"'yl^^^t'''"
f I
Fig. 1
PlLA
CAESAirS ARMY 25
shoulder. The sword was thus on the right side, out of the way of the shield. But the higher officers, who carried no shield, wore the sword on the left side.
Individual Baggage. Besides his personal belongings each S'? soldier carried his share of the picks, spades, baskets, etc., used in entrenching the camp; cooking utensils; and several days' rations of grain, which seems to have been apportioned out only twice a month. All this, weighing from thirty to forty-five pounds, was made into a pack (sarcina) and strapped on a forked stick; this the soldier carried on his shoulder. While thus encumbered the soldiers were said to be impediti. If the army was attacked on the march the packs were stacked in one place under guard, and the soldiers were then expediti.
OFFICERS OF THE LEGIONS
Legatus. All governors of provinces were given several 38 legati, deputies or assistants. These legates were not strictly military otEcers, but were to be employed by the governors in any way they saw fit. Caesar introduced the innovation of putting a legate in command of each legion just before a battle. When one or more legions were detached from the main army for special service, Caesar put a legate in command ; and legates were left in command of the winter quarters during Caesar's absence. But no one legate was in permanent command of any one legion.
ftuaestor. The quaestors were financial officers, elected 39 yearly by the people at Eome. One was chosen by lot to take charge of the finances of each province, so that Caesar always had one with him. He took charge of the pay and the supplies of the army. When he was competent Caesar employed him in battle as he did his legates, putting him in command of a legion.
Praefectus Fabrum. The chief of engineers had charge of 40 such matters as the building of bridges, construction of camps, erection of siege v/orks, repair of artillery, and the refitting of
26 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
ships. He probably had special assistants, but the actual labor was performed by skilled men detailed from the ranks.
41 Tribunus. No single ofiicer permanently commanded a legion, as our colonels command regnnents. Each legion had six tribunes, who took the chief command in rotation, while the rest probably commanded groups of cohorts or were assigned to special service. In Caesar's army many of the tribunes were experienced and capable oiJicers, v/ho did good service ; but others were young men without military experience, who had been appointed only because they were friends or relatives of influential men at Kome whom Caesar wished to please. It was for this reason that Caesar put his legates and quaestor in command of the legions in battle. On the march or in camp a tribune was in command.
42 Centurio. The centurions commanded centuries, and there were therefore sixty in each legion. On them fell the immediate management of the men in battle. They fought in the ranks like the men and were expected to set the men an example of conspicuous bravery. They were therefore pro- moted from the ranks on the basis of their strength and size as well as their skill and gallantry. They could hope for no promotion above the rank of centurion; but there were grades of centurions from one to the other of which they rose. The liighest of all was the first centurion of the first cohort, the primipilus. He and a few others, just how many is not known, were called centurions of the first rank (centuriones primorum ordinum, or primi ordines), and were commonly summoned to councils of war along with the tribunes and legates.
STANDARDS AND SIGNALS OF THE LEGIONS
43 Aquila. Each legion had as its standard a bronze or silver eagle (aquila), carried on the top of a wooden staff. It was regarded with almost religious respect, and its loss was the deepest disgrace that could befall the legion. It was in charge of the first centurion of the first cohort, and was carried by a
Plate 1
1. funditor 3. legionarii 5. signiferi 7. tubicen
2. levis armaturae milites 4. vexillum 6. aquilifer 8. bucinator
Roman Soldiers
CAESAR'S ARMY '^i
mail of conspicuous strength and bravery, the aquilifer (Plate I, 6).
Signum. Each cohort had its own standard (signum), 44 carried by a signifer (Plate I, 5). These standards were of various forms — an open hand, the figure of an animal, etc. On the staff, below the figure, were fastened the decorations of honor which had been bestowed on the cohort — disks, half moons, wreaths, and tassels. The diversity of form was necessary in order that each soldier might recognize easily the standard of his own cohort. In hasty preparation for battle each man found his place by looking for his standard ; and all through the battle he regulated his movements by those of his standard* For this reason the technical terms for such maneuvers as advancing and retreating are signa inferre, signa referre, etc.
Musical Instruments. There were no bands, and the only 45 use made of musical instruments was in the giving of signals. The only instrument mentioned by Caesar in the Gallic War is the tuba, a straight brazen trumpet, blown by a tubicen, but others were probably used as well (Plate I, 7, 8).
BAGGAGE OF THE LEGION
The heavy baggage (impedimenta) consisted of tents, pro- 46 visions, hand-mills for grinding grain, engines of war, etc., and was carried on pack horses or mules (iumenta). These were driven or led by the drivers (muliones) and camp servants (calones), who were probably slaves.
AUXILIARY INFANTRY AND CAVALRY
Infantry. The light armed infantry (Plate I, 1 and 2), 47 which Caesar usually calls auxilia, contained no Roman citizens. Caesar had slingers (funditores) from the Balearic Islands, and archers (sagittarii) from Crete and Xumidia; but most of his light armed infantry was drawn from friendly Gallic tribes and was armed in the native fashion. He put little reliance on them for serious fighting, but made them
28 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
useful in various ways: as skirmishers, to delay the enemy's attack; as raiders; in making fortifications at a critical time ; for mere show, to impress the enemy with his numbers; and in pursuit of a routed enemy. Their higher officers were prefects (praefecti). Their standard was a banner (vexillum, Plate I, 4) attached to a horizontal cross-piece at the end of a staff.
48 Cavalry. Caesar had no Roman cavalry. During his first six years in Gaul he had none but GaUic cavalry, but in the seventh year he secured some Germans and found them much more effective. They were useless against a line of infantry, but met the enemy's cavalry. Caesar employed them especially as scouts and raiders, or in pursuit of a routed enemy. Their higher officers were praefecti, and their standards were vexilla (cf. 47).
THE CAMP
49 A Roman army never halted even for one night without fortifying its camp (castra) with a wall and trench. This must have cost two or three hours of hard work; but it made the army safe from attack, and so allowed the general to choose his own time and place for battle; and in case of defeat the camp was a place of refuge.
50 Location and Form of Camp. Whenever it was possible the camp was built on a hill sloping gently toward the enemy, so that the Roman army could form its line of battle in front of the camp and make the enemy charge up hill. The normal shape of the camp was a square or oblong, but it had to be accom- modated to the shape of the hill. Fig. 3 shows the normal shape, while Fig. 4 shows the actual shape of one of Caesar's camps. Within the camp, streets were laid out in accordance with a fixed plan, and every legion, every cohort, every maniple had always the same location. Fig. 3 shows the normal arrangement for a camp which would accommodate five legions.
CAESAR'S ARMY
29
Fortifications of Camp (Fig. 5). The size of the trench 51 (fossa) varied, but was usually about nine feet wide and seven
Porta principalis
sinistra
fT
3^
Intervalliim
\ T
3o
'Aholh
i -
Quaestorium
OBSIDES, PRAECA
V
01
|
^ |
>L |
x: |
|
Praetorium |
-n n |
01.
Intervallum
lo First Legion Second Cohort
Porta principalis d extra
This camp is for five legions with cavalry and auxiliary troops
Fig. 3. Plan of a Roman Camp (Riistow)
deep. The earth, dug out with spades and carried in baskets, was piled up just inside the trench to make the wall (vallum). This wall was faced partly with sods,, partly with bundles oi; sticks (fascines), so that it was quite steep on the outside. Other fas- cines were put inside the wall, to strengthen it. It stood about six feet high, was wide enough on top to let the soldiers move about com- fortably in fighting, and sloped so gradually toward the inside that sol- diers could easily ascend it. Some- times this slope was faced with logs, so as to make steps. On the outer fig. 4. Camp on the axona
30
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
edge of the top stood a row of palisades (valli), about four feet high, which served as a breastwork. In case of an attack the
abed fo.9,9a Irano vallum
pp palisades f f fascines
Fig. 5. Valltj!,i and Fossa
enemy would be halted by the ditch several feeL from the wall, and be completely exposed to the Roman javelins, while the defenders stood on a higher position, protected by a breast- work, and could throw their missiles v^ith great effect. In times of especial danger, towers (turres) were erected at inter- vals on top of the wall. 52 Gates of Camp. Usually there was one gate (porta) on each of the four sides; but in the camp represented in Fig. 4 there were two gates in front, where the soldiers had most occasion to pass in and out. The gates were mere openings in the wall, about forty feet v»dde as a rule. Fig. 4 shows how they were protected. A short curved wall projected into the camp from the left side of the gate. A line of soldiers stood in the gate, and another manned this wall. If the enemy got into the opening they would be exposed on their shieldless side to a shower of missiles from the wall. Ordinarily this was a sufficient protection, and it left the gates open for a sudden charge from within. But in times of great emergency the gates could be walled up solidly.
Plate II
1. imperator 2. legatus 3. centuHo 4. Uctor
5. Gallic warrior 6, Gallic standard hearer 7. Gallic chief
Roman Officers and Gauls
CAESAR'S ARMY 31
THE MARCH
Line of March. The vanguard usually consisted of cavalry 53 and light armed infantry. Under ordinary circumstances each legion was followed by a train of pack animals carrying its baggage; but in the near neighborhood of the enemy all the baggage was brought together, preceded by most of the legions and followed by the rest.
Length of March. The length of a day's march of course 54 varied greatly, according to the nature of the country and the need for haste. As the soldier had to carry from forty-five to sixty pounds of arms and baggage, and as the army had to halt early in the afternoon to give time for making camp, the rate of march of the army could be nothing like that of an unen- cumbered individual. Probably when there was no need of haste the average march was no more than twelve to fifteen miles, and a day of rest was given about every fifth day. But Caesar, like Napoleon, owed much of his success to his power of inspiring his army to great efforts on the march. When he speaks of forced marches (magna itinera, maxima itinera), we are to think of marches of from eighteen to twenty-five miles a day, or even more. On one occasion he marclied four legions, without baggage, fifty Roman fniles in less than thirty hours, including all stops.
THE BATTLE
Since the legions had to do the serious work of fighting, the 55 line of battle was arranged solely with reference to their tactics. When the enemy were within the short range of the Roman javelins they were met by a volley of these deadly missiles and their ranks were thus broken. Immediately the Romans charged, and the rest of the battle was fought out at close quarters with the sword. When possible, therefore, the line of battle was drawn up facing down a gentle slope. This gave greater range to the javelins and greater impetus to the charge ; while the enemy must begin the battle breathless from
32 CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
a charge up the hill. The auxiliary infantry might be posted in front of the line, but it was expected to do no more than delay the attack of the enemy. More often it was posted on the flanks, sometimes merely as a show of strength. The cavalry might meet the cavalry of the enemy. Otherwise it usually merely awaited the rout of the enemy, when it pursued and cut to pieces the fugitives.
56 Line of Battle. The line of battle was commonly triple (triplex acies), though sometimes only double (duplex acies). In the triple line of battle the first line was composed of the first four cohorts of each legion, standing side by side, with no intervals between the cohorts. Three cohorts of each legion formed the second line, which stood a short distance behind the first, ready to relieve it when it became exhausted in the battle. The remaining three cohorts of each legion formed the third line, in the rear, and were held as a reserve for any emergency. Each of these lines was eight or ten men deep, and only the front rank of the first line could engage in the battle at any one moment. But that rank would fight vigorously for a few moments, then fall back and be relieved by the next rank, and so on until all the men of the first line had been engaged. Then it was relieved as a whole by the second line.
57 Orbis. When surrounded by the enemy and hard pressed, a body of men would form what is now called a hollow square, and what the Romans called a circle (orbis), with the baggage and camp servants inside the ring of armed men.
THE CAPTURE OF TOWNS
58 A great part of Caesar's military operations consisted in the capture of walled towns. The fortification of these towns was rather primitive, but it was quite effective (Fig. 6). The face of the wall showed regular rows of log ends separated by huge stones. No one log could be grappled and pulled out, for they were all fastened together far within the wall. The logs
CAESAR'S ARMY 33
would not burn, for they were each imbedded in stone and earth. A battering-ram could demolish a solid stone wall, but the framework of timbers ;;^..,g^=^^^^_^^^^
defied it. Therefore Caesar -f^^^^^^^^^^^S
relied little on making breaches ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m in the walls and entering in that ^^^^K^^^^^^^^^^S» way. But there were three ^^sKs^^^^^^^^^^ other possible methods — a block- ^^^^^^^^^^^^r ade, a sudden assault, and a ^'l^^^^^pO^^^ formal siege.
Blockade (obsidio). A ring of ^^^- ^' ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^" ^^^^ 59 fortifications could be built around the town, and the place starved into submission. But this was too slow a method to be employed unless all other methods were hopeless, and Caesar used it only once in the Gallic War.
Sudden Assault (oppugnatio repentina). If a town had low 60 walls and few defenders, it might be taken by a sudden assault. Archers and slingers kept the wall partly clear of defenders. Soldiers approached the wall in safety by holding their shields over their heads and letting them overlap, forming a testudo (tortoise, Plate III, 3). If there was a trench around the wall, they filled it with bundles of brushwood (crates, fascines). Then they mounted the wall by means of scaling ladders (scalae, Plate III). But such towns would usually surrender without a struggle, so that the method was little used.
Formal Siege (oppugnatio). The favorite method was by 61 the use of the agger and tower (turris). The agger was a great causeway, built of logs and earth, which sloped gradually up toward the top of the wall. Generally it was not intended to be as high as the wall. In that case a tower, several stories high, was pushed up the causeway on rollers. From the upper stories, which rose higher than the wall, archers and slingers and artillery shot down the defenders. When the tower was near enough, a drawbridge was let down from one of the lower stories to the top of the wall, and the Romans charged across
34
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
it. Sometimes the causeway was as high as the wall, and thus itself gave access to its top (Fig. 7). Sometimes, if the wall was
d e
c
Fig. 7. Side View of Agger in Process of Constkuction
a b, the enemy's wall, f g h, part already constructed, c d e f h, part to be con- structed, abed, part to he filled in with earth and rubbish at the last moment. p p p, lines of plutei protecting the workmen. The lines of direction show the spaces protected by the plutei.
low and the ground about it level, no causeway was built, and the tower was pushed over the ground to the wall. Then a battering-ram might be hung in the lowest story, and the drawbridge was let down from one of the upper stories. Plate III illustrates this method of using the tower, as well as severai other devices ; but the city is not a Gallic town. 62 Means of Protecting the Besiegers. In building the agger and carrying on the other operations of a siege the assailants had to approach within easy range of missiles from the wall:
hence they made use of several forms of protection.
a. The pluteus (Fig. 8) was a heavy shield, several feet high, mounted on wheels. A line of these, parallel to the wall, gave Fig. 8 protection to men working imme-
diately behind it; and it could be moved forward at pleasure.
b. The musculus (Fig. 9) was a hut with one end open and the other end partially closed. Its roof was strong enough to withstand the Fig. 9
I
CAESAR'S ARMY
35
Fig. 10
shock of great stones which might be dropped upon it from the wall. It could be pushed up to the wall, and under its shelter men could dig out the foundation of the wall.
c. The testudo arietaria (Plate III, 2) was a similar hut in which hung a batter- ing-ram (aries), a heavy tim- ber capped with iron, in- tended to be swung against the wall.
d. The vinea (Fig. 10) was a lighter hut, open at both ends. A number of these placed end to end made a safe cov- ered gallery extending from a point out of range up to the inusculi, testudines, or plutei.
All these huts were pushed forward on rollers.
The Artillery. — Caesar had with him engines of war, the 63 purpose of which corresponded to that of modern artillery.
They were too heavy and clumsy to be of much service in bat- tle : hence their chief use was in siege op- erations. The gen- eral name tormenta is derived from torqueo, to twist, and was ap- plied to them because the propelling force was obtained by twist- i4|g a stick between two tightly stretched horse-hair ropes. Fig. 11. Catapulta cl. The ballista
36
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR
64
(Plate III, 5) threw heavy stones at a considerable angle from the horizontal.
h. The catapult (catapulta) threw great arrows nearly hori- zontally. Fig. 11 makes most of its mechanism clear without explanation, (a) is an arrangement for raising or lowering the rear of the nearly horizontal track, thus regulating the range. The track is grooved to hold a long sliding carriage, on the rear portion of which is the trigger (b). The operation of firing was as follows: The carriage was pushed forward till the claws of the trigger were over the bowstring; a block (c) was shoved under the heavy rear end of the trigger, and the claws were thus held down on the string; the carriage was drawn back by means of the windlass, and held in place by the hook (d); the arrow was laid on the grooved upper surface of the carriage, with its end resting on the string between the claws of the trigger; the block (c) was withdrawn and the rear end
of the trigger fell by its own weight, thus releasing the string.
c. The Scorpio was a small catapult.
d. The onager (Plate Til, 4) threw stones, like the ballista, but was of different construction.
THE FLEET
The fleet is to be consid- ered as belonging to the army, rather than as a sep- arate organization ; for when Caesar had need of it he manned it with his legiona- ries, put tribunes and centu- Pjq 12 rions in command of indi-
CAESAR'S ARMY 31
vidual ships, and made one of his legates its admiral. The ships of war were about eight times as long as they were broad, and were therefore called naves longae, in distinction from the transports (naves onerariae), which were shorter and wider. They had a mast and single sail, but in battle depended on oars for their propulsion. Their prows (Fig. 12) were armed with metal beaks (rostra), with which to ram the ships of the enemy. If the Romans failed in this they sought to make the battle as much as possible like a battle on land, their special object being to grapple one of the enemy's ships and board it.
A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list of books will suggest those which are most helpful to pupils and teachers who read only English. Those who wish to make a more detailed study of special points will find that Holmes gives references to almost everything of importance in the enormous literature of Caesar, except on the linguistic side.
Editions
A. Holder. (Freiburg and Tubingen, 1882.) This may be useful for its (inaccurate) index of words, which is intended to be complete.
H. Meusel. (Berlin, 1894.) The critical edition is the best text edition of the Gallic War. No explanatory notes.
H. Rheinhard. (Stuttgart, 1896.) Useful for its illustra- tions.
Of the following English editions the first two are useful :
C. E. Moberly. (The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1878.)
A. G. Peskett. (Cambridge, 1878-1882.)
St. George Stock. (The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1898.) Usually good when it follows good authorities.
Caesar's Life and Campaigns
Col. T. A. Dodge. Caesar. (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1894.) Useful if Napoleon can not be obtained, but without much inde- pendent value.
W. Warde Fowler. JitUns Caesar. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1892.) The best life of Caesar.
J. A. Froufle. Caesar: a Sketch, Interesting, but grossly partisan and inaccurate.
T. Rice Holmes. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul. (MacmillaD
38
BIBLIOGRAPHY 39
& Co., London, 1899.) The best discussion, in any language, of the military and geographical problems.
Napoleon III. History of Julius Caesar. (Out of print, but can be obtained at second hand. If possible get the Atlas with the two volumes. The French edition is more easily obtained.) Volume II gives a more complete narrative and explanation of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul than can be found elsewhere, but without much discussion of disputed points.
C. W. C. Oman. Seven Roman Statesmen, (Edward Arnold, London, 1902.) The characterization of Caesar is too violent a reaction against the views of Mommsen and Froude.
Plutarch's Lives. Every pupil should read tlie life of Caesar.
Anthony Trollope. The Commentaries of Caesar. (In the series, Ancient Classics for English Readers.)
Much that is valuable will be found in the following histories:
Duruy. History of Rome.
Long. Tlie Decline of the Roman Republic. This is espe- cially good in its treatment of Caesar's campaigns.
Merivale. History of the Roma7is under the Umpire.
Mommsen. History of Rome. The chief defect of this extraordinary work is its too great partiality for Caesar.
Miscellaneous
H. P. Judson. Caesar'' s Army. (Ginn & Co., 1888.) This gives much fuller information about the organization and tactics of the Roman army than can be given in the introduction of an edition. It should be at hand for reference.
R. Oehler. Bilderatlas zu Cdsars de Bello Gallico. (Leipzig, 1890.)
W. Riistow. Atlas zu Cdsars Gallischem Krieg. (Stuttgart.)
A. Van Kampen. Quindecim ad Caesaris de Bello Gallico Commentarios Tabulae. (Gotha.)
REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS
In the grammatical references, App. = Appendix (following Book VII); G.-L». =■ Gilder sleeve- Lodge; A. = Allen and Greenough; B. = Bennett; H.-B. = Hale and Buek ; H. = Harkness. In each case the latest revision has been followed.
References are made to books of the text in Roman characters, to chapters in bold-faced Arabic numerals, to lines in plain-faced Arabic numerals. Thus, III, 2, 11 = Book III, chapter 2, line 11.
In the page vocabularies, the figures 1 , 2, 3, and 4, following definitions, indicate the number of times the word is used in Books I-IV. * indicates that the word is used 5 or more times in those books.
For the explanation of some other details, see p. 2 of the general vocabulary at the end of the book.
abbr. = abbreviation.
abl.= ablative.
ace. = accusative.
act. = active.
ad j.= adjective.
adv. = adverb, adverbial,
card. = cardinal.
cf. = confer^ compare.
chap. = chapter.
comp. = comparative.
conj. = conjunction.
dat. = dative.
def. = defective.
dem. = demonstrative.
dim.= diminutive.
distr. = distributive.
e.g.= exempli gratia, for example.
end. = enclitic.
etc.= et cetera, and so forth.
f . = feminine.
fig. = figure, figuratively.
freq. = frequentative.
f ut. = future.
gen. = genitive.
i.e.= id est, that is.
imp.= imperative.
impers. = impersonal.
impf.= imperfect.
incept = inceptive.
ind, = indicative.
indecl = indeclinable.
indef.= indefinite.
inf. = infinitive.
int. = introduction .
interrog = interrogative.
intr. = intransitive.
irr.= irregular.
1., 11.= line, lines.
lit. = literally.
m. = masculine.
neg. = negative.
n., neut. = neuter.
n. (in grammatical references) = note.
nom. = nominative.
num. = numeral.
ord. = ordinal.
p., pp. = page, pages.
part. = participle.
pass.= passive.
pers. = personal.
pf . = perfect.
pi. = plural.
plupf . = pluperfect.
poss.= possessive.
prep.= preposition.
pres. = present.
pron. = pronoun.
reflex. = reflexive.
rel. = relative.
HC.=scUicet, supply.
sing. = singular.
subj.= subjunctive.
sup. = superlative.
tr. = transitive.
40
BOOK I, CHAPTERS 1 TO 29. WAR WITH THE
HELVETH
The Helvetii were a Gallic people living in northern Switzerland. Hemmed in by the mountains, they had retained without loss their strength and independence. During the invasion of Gaul by theCimbri a part of the Helvetii had left their country independently and defeated a Roman army in 107 B.C. Many of the Helvetii had joined the Cimbri and Teutoni in their attempted invasion of Italy in 102 and 101 B.C. After the disastrous result of these attempts the Helvetii had remained comparatively quiet for a long time; but now, dissatisfied with the nar- row limits of their country, they determined to seek wider fields
The originator of this plan was Orgetorix, their most powerful noble- man. But the Helvetii soon learned that he was trying to further ambitious plans of his own and to use them as tools; that he intended to make himself their khig, and then to unite with two neighboring states in the subjugation of all Gaul. The penalty for the crime of aiming at royal power was death, but Orgetorix anticipated the punish- ment by committing suicide. Yet the Helvetii persisted in the plans which they had adopted at his suggestion. They made all preparations, then burned their hom.es and gathered near tlie v/estern end of Lake Geneva, ready to set out.
But Rome had been watching their preparations in some alarm. If the Helvetii marched through the province, they could not fail to give trouble to the Romans. And what was a more serious matter, if the Helvetii left their country vacant it would be occupied by the Germans; and the Germans were dangerous neighbors. Caesar^s term of office as governor of Gaul began in the year of their departure. Learning that the Helvetii intended to set out sooner than he had expected, he hur- ried to Geneva, so that when they gathered he was there to meet them. He destroyed the bridge across the Rhone, which they had failed to secure, and with his one legion hastily made and manned a line of defenses on the south bank of the river. He then forbade their crossing, and easily checked tlieir attempts to disobey his orders.
The baffled Helvetii now obtained permission of the Sequani to pass to tlie west through their territory. The great host, with its women and children and thousands of wagons, marched slowly through this to the Saone, and its van crossed the river and began plundering the land of
41
42 CAESAR^S GALLIC WAR
the Haedui. Meanwhile Caesar had hastened back to northern Italy and returned with five legions. The Haedui, who had been nominal aUies of the Romans for many years, now appealed to Caesar. He was not sorry to appear as the champion of Gallic freedom, for he thus gained a footing in Gaul. Finding that one of the four divisions of the Helvetii had not yet crossed the Saone, he fell upon it and cut it to pieces. Immediately he crossed the river in pursuit of the main body. For fifteen days he followed it, but on account of the nature of the country he was unable to head off the slowly moving mass. Finally the lack of provisions compelled him to turn aside to Bibracte. Believing that this action was due to cowardice, the Helvetii in turn became the pursuers, thus allowing Caesar to meet them on ground of his own choosing. In a hard fought battle he defeated them with immense loss; Jind the remnant of the once proud and mighty people sadly returned to its mountain home.
EXPLANATION OF CAMPAIGN MAP
Brown indicates the. part of Transalpine Gaul which belonged to Rome when Caesar entered upon his command.
Red indicates the states whose submission Caesar secured by conquer- ing them in battle. The Boii are shown in the homes given them after their defeat. The Latobrigi and the Tulingi lived across the Rhine and are not shown on this map. The Ceutrones, the Graioceli, and the Caturiges were forced to permit the passage of the army, but were probably not reduced to submission, and are therefore left uncolored.
Blue indicates the states which submitted without fighting. In chap.
30 we are told that envoys from "nearly all Gaul" came to Caesar as a result of his victory over the Helvetii. It is certain that Celtic Gaul is meant; therefore Aquitania and Belgium are left uncolored. In chap.
31 we are told that Ariovistus held a part of the territory of the Sequani; this is left uncolored. In II, 34 we are given a list of states which did not submit till 57; these also are left uncolored. All the re^st of Celtic Gaul may be supposed to have submitted at the close of the* war with the Helvetii; it is therefore colored blue.
The line of march shows Caesar^s route in crossing the Alps the second time, with the five legions. It also shows the route of the Helvetii after they left their territory. After crossing the Arar Caesar's route coincides with that of the Helvetii.
Crossed sabers indicate battlefields. Colonel Stoffel's identification of the main battlefield (Histoire de Jules Cesar: Guerre Civile, ii, 439-453) is almost certainly right and is indicated on this map.
2 Longitude 0 from 2 Greenwich 4 East 6
Campaign Map for Book 1, 1-29
C. lULl CAESARIS
BELLI GALLICI
LIBEE PEIMUS
1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quaram unam
1. Gallia, -ae, /., Gallia (gal'i-a), better, Gaul, including either (1) Belgium, Celtica, and Aquitania, or (3) only Celtica. See map. ^
sum, esse, fui (App 66), intr., be, exist, live; stay, remain; serve for; with gen. in predicate, be the mark or sign of ; belong to; be the duty of; with dat. of possessor, have. :^
omnis, -e, o.dj., all, every, all the, every kind of; the whole, as a whole; m. pi. as noun, all, every one; all the rest; n. pi. as noun, all possessions or goods. ^
divide, dividere, divisi, divisum, tr. divide, separate; divisus, ;>>/. part, as adj., divided. :ic
in, prep, with ace. and ahl. With ace. (1) of motion, from one place into or towards another place, into, to; in, among; towards, for, against; at; up- on: (2) o/ tljfie, till, into; for; on, at: (3) other uses, in, in respect to, for, un- der, over, on ; in dies, from day to day ; in fugam conicere, put to flight; in Caesarem incidere, meet with Caesar ;
summum in cruciatum venire, be
severely punished. With abl. (1) of rest or motion within a place, in among, over, within, throughout; on, upon; (2) of time, in, during, in the course of; on: (3) other uses, in, in the case of; in consequence of, in view of; on, upon; in Arari, over the Arar; in eo, in his case; in ancoris, at anchor; in opere esse, be engaged in the work. :jc
pars, partis, /., part, portion; party, faction; direction, side, place; district. ^
tres, tria, gen. trium (III), card, num. adj., three. ^
qui, quae, quod, rel. pron. (and see quis), who, which, w^hat; often imply, ing an antecedent, he who, those who; with force of dem., this, that; quam Ob rem, wherefore; quern ad modum, in w^hat manner, how, as; quo, tvith com- paratives, the; quo . . . eo, the . . . the. jfc
uttus, una, unum, gen. unius (App. 32), card. num. adj., one, the same one; single, alone; the sole, the only; the sole or only one. ^
Chap. 1. A brief description of the great divisions of Gaul, and of their inhabitants.
1. Gallia: in translating, proper names should always be pronounced like English words. The pronunciation is always indicated in the vocabulary. The values of the vowel markings are shown in the table on p. 2 of the vocab- ulary at the end of the book.
omnis, "as a whole," shows that Gal- lia here has meaning (1) of the vocab- ulary.
divisa: the adjective.
partes tres: on the divisions of Gaul, see Int. 28.
quarum unam, "one of which (parts)." unam: case? App. 124: G.-L. 330: A. 387: B. 172: H.-B. 390: H. 404. The grammar references should al-
■ — — ^ *
*The asterisk, in the vocabulary , shows that the word occurs live or more times in Books I-IV. A figure, 1, 2, 3, or 4, similarly placed, is used when the word occurs less than five times.
43
44
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 1
incolunt Belgae, aliam Aqaitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, Institutls, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna
2. incoia, -colere, -colui, , tr.
and intr, [colo, cultivate], inhabit, dwell in; live. >{:
Belgae, -arum, m. (ABdefg), the Belgae (belje). or Belgians. ^
alius, -a, -ud, 9'^^. alius (App. 32), another, other; alius . . . alius, one . . . another; in jjl.y some . . . oth- ers. ^
Aquitanus, -a, -um, a(^., of Aqui- tania, Aquitanian; pi. as noun, the Aquitani (ak"wi-ta'm), possibly Aqui- ti^m.?i>Tis, inhabiting southwesterPj Gaul, sjc
tertius, -a, -um, ord. num. adj. [ter, thriee], third, -jf.
ipse, ipsa, ipsum, gen. ipsius (App. 59), intensive pron., self («s opposed to some one else,' not to be confused with the reflexive se, self. App. 163); himself, herself, itself, themselves; he, she, it, they; as adj., very; in gen., his, her, its, or their own. *
lingua, -ae, /., tongue, language. 3.
3. Celtae, -arum, m., the Celtae (sgl'te), better, the Celts. 1.
noBter, -tra, -trum, i^oss. adj. [nos, we], our, ours, our own; in pi. as noun, our men, our troops. *
GalluB, -a, -um, adj., of Gaul, Gallic; pi. as noun, the Gauls, inhabiting Cen- tral Gaul, Northern Italy, etc. ^
appell5, 1, tr., accost, address, call by name, name, call. ^
Mc, haec, hoc, dem. pron. (App. 54), usf-d for what is near in space, time, or thought, with more emphasis than is; this, this man, woman, or thing; he, she, it; abl. sing, hoc, on this account; in this respect; the {with comparatives)', lilc . . . ilie, the latter . . . the former. See App. 170, a. *
instittitum, -), n. [instituo, set up, establish], a fixed course or prin- ciple; habit, institution, custom. 3.
4. lex, legis, /., law, statute, enact- ment. 4.
inter, j)rep. loith ace. {sometimes foU loiving its noun), 0) of place, among, between: (2) of time, during, within, for: (3) in other relations, among, between, in; in among or between; to; over; along with : (4) with reflex, pron. , of re^ ciprocal action (App. 16(5), with, to, or from each other or one another, as, inter se differunt, differ from one an- other ; each other, one another, as, co-
ways be looked up and studied. In the notes on I, 1-29, for each of the most common principles of syntax grammar references are given three times, in order that it may be studied and twice reviewed.
2. Belgae: it is impossible to under- stand and appreciate Caesar's story unless one follows it on the map. The letters in parentheses which follow geo- graphical names, in the vocabulary, correspond to the letters on the mar- gins of the map in the front of the book . By their aid places can easily be found.
aliam, tertiam: sc. partem incohmt.
qui = a qui: a nominative pronoun antecedent is often omitted.
ipsorum lingua, "in their own lan- guage." lingua: case? App. 143: G.-L. 401: A. 409: B. 218: H.-B. 423: H. 476.
3. Celtae, Galli: case? App. 95, a: G.-L. 205; 206: A. 283; 284: B. 167; 168, 2, b: H.-B. 316; 317, 3: H. 393, 8.
lingua, institutig, legibUB, "in language, institutions, and laws." No- tice the absence of a conjunction. Latin usually says either "a, b, c," or *'a and b and c," while English usually says "a, b, and c." For case see App. 149: G.-L. 397: A. 418: B. 228: H.-B. 441: H. 480.
4. Garumna flumen: sc. dlvidit flilmen: case? App. 95,6: G.-L. 320; 231: A. 281: 282: B. 169, 1, 2: H.-B. 316; 317, a, a: H. 393.
GEOGRAPHY OF GAUL
45
flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omninm 6 fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atqiie humani- tate provinciae longissime absuiit, minimeque ad eos merca-
Lortati inter se, encouraging one another. :}«
8ui, sibi, se, or sese, reflex, pron. of Bd person (App. 1G3, 164, 165), himself, herself, itself, themselves ; he, she, they, etc. ; inter se, see inter and App. 166. H«
dififerd, differre, distuli, dilatum, tr. and intr. [fer5, carry. App. 81], i scatter, spread; put off, defer; be dif- I ferent, differ. 1.
a (before consonants), ab {before voio- els and some consonants), abS {before te, and in some CO j7ipounds), prep. with abl., originally denoting separation; (1) of place, persons, time, etc., from, away from, from the vicinity of: {2) denoting posi- tion, 171 some phrases, at, in, on, on the side of; a tergo, in the rear: (3) with expressions of ineasure, away, off; ab milibus passuum du5bus, two miles away: (4) with the pass, voice often de- noting the agent, as the person from whom the action comes, by : (5) variously translated in other relations, from, by, in respect to, after. ^
Garumna, -ae, m. (DEcd), the Ga- rumna (ga-rum'na), or Garonne, a river forming the boundary between Aquitania and Celtic Gatd. 3.
6. flumen, -inis, n. [fluo, flow] , river, stream. ^
Matrona, -ae, m. (Bef), the river Matrona (mat'ro-na), now the Marne. 1.
et, conj., and; also, too, even; et . . . et, both . . . and. :fc
Sequana, -ae, m. (BCdef), the river Sequana (sek'wa-na), better, Seine. 1.
6. fortis, -e, adj,, strong, valiant, brave. ^
propterea, adv. [propter, because of], on this account; propterea quod, because. ^
quod, conj. [adv. ace. of the neuter of qui, who, which], as to which, in that, that; as to the fact that, insomuch as; because; quod si, but if; propterea quod, because.' ^
cultus, -lis, m. [colo, cultivate], cul- tivation; civilization; mode of life; dress. 2.
atque, ac (ac only before consonants^ atque before voiuels and consonants)^ conj., usually adds something especially i?7iportant, while et usually associates objects of equal importance; and also, and even, and; after tvords denoting a com- parison or difference, than, as, from. He
humanitas, -tatis,/. [humanus, hu- man] , humanity, relinement, culture. 2.
7. provincia, -ae, /., office of gov- ernor of a province; province, a territory subject to Rome and governed by a Roman governor; especially the Province, the southern part of France. ^
longe, adv. [longus, long], far, far away, distant; longe lateque, far and wide. :ic
absum, abesse, afui, intr. [sum, be. App. 78], be away from, be absent or distant, be wanting or free from. :^
minime, adv. [minimus, least], least.
5. Matrona . . . dividit: the two riv- ers formed one boundary, and the verb is therefore singular: App. 180, b-. G.-L. 285, 2: A. 317, b\ B. 255, 3: H.-B. 331, 3: H. 392, 4.
liorum: case? App. 101: G.-L. 367;
372: A. 346, a, 2: B. 201, 1: H.-B. 346: H. 440, 5; 442.
7. provinciae: see int. 2, 26.
quod absunt: mode? App. 244: G.-Li. 540: A. 540: B. 286, 1 : H.-B.. ^54; 555: H.588,1.
minime saepe, *' very seldom."
46
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 1
tores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos
pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans
10 Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt.
very little; by no means, not at all. 4.
-que, conj. {always affixed to the word or some part of the expression it connects), and; que . . . que, or que . . . et, both . . . and. jj:
ad, prep, with ace, originally denoting motion toivard; (1) denoting motion, to, toward, against, to the vicinity of: (2) denoting position, at, by, near: (3) denot- ing purpose, with gerund and gerundive ^ to, for: (i)with numerals, up to, about: (5) of time, up to, until;* at, on: (6) vari- ously translated in other relations, at, after, for, to, according to, in the eyes of, among. H^
is, ea, id gen. eiUB (App. 57), weak dem. pron. referring to some person or object named in the context, this, that, these, those; he, she, it, they; the, a; is locus quo, a, or the, place where; ea quae, (the) things which; eo, tcith comj)., the; eo magis, all the more; e5 . . . quo, with comparatives, the . . . the. :jc
mercator, -oris, m. [mercor, trade], merchant, trader. H^
8. saepe, adv., often, frequently; many times, again and again ; saepe nu- merd, often, time and again, frequent- ly; comp. saepius, oftener, more fre- quently ; time and again ; too often. :^
commeo, l, intr. [meo, go], go back and forth; with ad, resort to, visit. 1.
effemino, 1, tr. [ex + femina, wom- an], make effeminate, enervate, en- feeble. 1.
animus, -i, m., soul, spirit; mind, in- tellect; feelings; character; resolution, courage; animi causa, for amusement; in animd habere, intend, ^j
9. pertine5, -tinere, -tinui, ,
intr. [teneo, hold], hold or reach to, ex- tend; pertain, have reference to, con- cern; tend, aim at; eodem pertinere, tend to the same purpose or result, amount to the same thing. H?
Importd, 1, tr. [in+porto, carry], carry or bring in, import. 3.
proximus. -a, -um, adj., sup. (App. 43), nearest, next; last, previous; with ace. (App. 122, b), next to. :^
Germani, -drum, m., the Germani (.ier-ma'ni), better, Germans, ij:
trans, prep, tvith acCt across, beyon^l. over; in comjwunds, trans or tra, across, over, through. iH
10. Rhenus, -i, m. (ABCfgh), thej'iver Rhenus (re'nus), better, the Rhine. Hs
cum, prep, withabl.i with, along with, together with. H«
continenter, adv. fcontinens, con- tinuous], without interruption, contin- ually, continuously. 3.
bcllum, -i, n., war. ^
gero, gerere, gessi, gestum, tr., bear, carry, wield; {of war) carry on,
mercatores: Roman traders had for some time penetrated the interior of Gaul, bringing, among other things, strong wines, of which the Gauls were very fond.
8. quae . . . pertinent: notice that in relative clauses the relative almost always stands first and the verb last: everything that stands between the rel- ative and the first finite verb which fol- lows usually belongs to the relative clause.
ad effeminandos animos, "to weak- en the courage"; the gerundive con- struction will be treated later.
9. proximi Germanis, "next to the Germans": case? App. 122: G.-L. 3';9: A. 384: B. 192, 1: H.-B. 362, III: H. 434, 2.
10. quibuscum: use and position of cumF App. 140; 60, b: G.-L. 392; 413,1: A. 413, b; 150, d: B. 222; 142,4: H.-B. 418, a; 419,4: H. 473, 1; 182,2.
GEOGRAPHY OF GAUL
47
Qna de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praece- dunt, qiiod fere cotidianis proeliTs cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis f Jnibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum finibus
perform, wage, conduct; pasc, be done, go on, occur. ^
11. de, 2;?'6?;. loifh abl., originally denot- ing motion from; (1) of place, from, down from, away from, out of: (2) of time, just after, about : (3) variously translated in other relations, about, concerning, oi, from, in accordance with, for. ^
causa, -ae,/., cause, reason, grounds, motive; situation, condition; a (legal) case, cause; causam dicere, to plead a case; causa, folloivlng a gen., for the sake of, for the purpose of, for. ^
Helvetius, -a, -um, adj. (Cgh), of the Helvetii (hel-ve'shyi), Helvetian; as noun, one of the Helvetii, an Helvetian; pi., the Helvetii, possibly Helvetians. ^
quoque, conj., following the ivord em- phasized, also, too, likewise. >j;
reliquus, -a, -um, adj. [relin- quo, leave], left, remaining, the rest, the rest of; future, subsequent; n. as noun, remainder, rest. ^
virtus, -utis, /- [vir, man], manli- ness, valor, merit, worth, virtue, courage; strength, energy; pl.t good qualities, virtues, merits. ^
praecedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessum, tr. [cedo, go], go before; surpass, excel. 1.
12. fere, adv., almost, nearly, about, for the most part. ^
cotidianus, -a, -um, adj. [cotldie,
daily], every day, daily; usual, custom- ary. ^
proelium, -li, n., battle, contest, en- gagement; proelium committere, join or begin battle, risk a fight, engage in battle, fight. ^
contendo, -tendere, -tendi, -ten- tum, tr. andintr. [tendd, stretch], push forward, hasten; march; strive, con- tend, fight; be anxious for; maintain, insist. ^
13. cum, conj., when, as, while; after, as soon as; whenever; since, because; although ; cum . . , tum, not only . . . but also, both . . . and; cum primum, as soon as. See App. 238-'242. ^
aut, conj., used where the difference is important or exclusive, or; aut . . , aut, either ... or. ^
suus, -a, -um, reflex, pronominal adj. refe?Ting to subject (App. 163, 164, 165, 167, a) [sui, himself, herself, etc.], of or belonging to himself, herself, etc., his own, their own ; his, hers, its, theirs ; sua, n. pi. as noun, one's property; sui, 911. pi. as noun, their men (friends or countrymen). ^
finis, -is, m., boundary, limit, border, end ; p^., boundaries; territory, country, h»
prohibed, 2, tr. [habeo, have, hold], keep from, keep, restrain, prevent, pro- hibit; keep out or away from; protect, guard. :Jc
11. qua de causa, *'(and) for this reason." The relative is often used to connect independent sentences in Latin, but is not so used in English. We must in such cases translate by a personal or demonstrative pronoun, and we may render the connective force of the rela- tive by using "and" or "but," if we like: App. 173, a: G.-L. 610. 1 : A. 308, /: B. 251, 6: H.-B. 284, 8/ H. 510.
Eelvetii: although the rest of tho chapter is concerned with the larger divisions of Gaul, Caesar speaks of this tribe in particular, because it is to be prominent in the following chapters.
virtiite: ablative of specification.
12. proeliis, "in battle"; but it is an ablative of means.
13. suis finibus: the reflexives ml and suus regularly refer to the subject:
48
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 1
belli! m gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere die- ts turn est, iiiitium capit a flumine Rhodano; continetur Ga- riimna flumine, Oceaiio, finibus Beigarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Eheiium; vergit ad septen- triones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibns oriuntur; perti-
14. obtineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- turn, tr. [tene5, hold], hold, retain, pos- sess, maintain; acquire, obtain. ^
dico, dlcere, dixi, dictum, tr., say, tell, speak, express, mention; name, appoint; causam dicere, plead a case; ius dicere, administer justice. ^
15. initium, -ti, n. [ineo, go into], beginning, commencement, origin; edge of a country, borders. >H
capio, capere, cepi, captum, tr., take, capture, seize, catch; take in, beguile, induce ; take up («rms) ; choose, select (a place); form, adopt (a plan); reach, arrive at (a place) ; make (a begin- ning); collem capere, take position on a hill; fugam capere, take to flight, sj:
Rhodanus, -i, m. (CDfg), the river Rhodanus (rod'a-nus), better, Rhone. 5jc
contined, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- turn, tr. [teneo, hold], hold together; hold, keep, restrain ; bound, shut in : con- tain; Be continere, with dbl., remain in, on, or within. H«
16. Oceanus, -i, m., the ocean; as adj., ivith mare, the ocean, i';.
attingo, -tingere, -tigi, -tac- tum, tr. [ad^-tango, touch], touch or border on, reach, extend to, arrive at, attain. ^
etiam, conj., and also, also, even, yet. H«
17. Sequanus, -a, -um, adj., of or be- longing to the Sequaui; ;;/. as noun, Sequani (Cfg), the Sequani (sek' wa- ni). He
vergo, -ere, , , intr., look' or
lie towards, be situated ; slope. 3.
septentriones, -um, m. [septem, seven -ftriones, plough oxen], the seven plough oxen, the stars of the Great Bear, hence the north. ?{«
18. extremus, -a, -um, adj. [sup. of exterus. App. 44], outermost, utmost, farthest, extreme; the farthest part of; extremi {as noun), the rear; ad extre- mum, at last, at the end; as a last resort. h«
orior, oriri, ortus sum, intr., arise, begin, spring up, rise, start; be born, descend; oriens sol, the rising sun, I sunrise; the east. 5jj
%ui8 therefore refers to the Ilelvt^tii. For case see App. 134: G.-L. 390, 2: A. 400; 401: B 214, 2: H.-B. 408, 2: H. 464, 1; and notice that the preposition ab is often used in the same sense, as in ah Aquitanis, 1. 4.
eorum refers to the Germans. For case see App. 99: G.-L. 362: A. 343: B. 198: H.-B. 339: H. 440, 1.
14. eorum refers back to the Gauls as a whole, not to the Helvetii, who have just been mentioned.
quam is the object, 6all5s the sub- ject of obtinere: App. 123: G.-L. 343, 2: A. 397, €'. B. 184: H.-B. 398: H. 415. The infinitive clause, quam • . . ob- tinere, is the subject of dictum est:
App. 266: G.-L. 343, 2; 650: A. .580: B. 314, 1: H.-B. 589: H. 612. The whole may be freely translated, "which, as has been said, the Gauls occu- py"
15. a flumine, "at the river." There are many phrases in which we feel "at" or "on" to be the appropriate preposi- tion, but in which the Romans seem to have thought of a starting-point and consequently used ab or ex, which lit- erally mean "from."
16. ab Sequanis, "in the direction of" or "on the side of." Cf. the preced- ing note.
18. extremis finibus: i. e. those farthest from the Roman province.
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
49
nent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in sep- tentriones et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flu- mine ad Pyrenaeos montes et earn partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septen- triones.
2. Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix. Is, M. Messala, M. Pisone consulibns, regni cupi-
19. inferus, -a, -um, adj., low, be- low; comp., inferior, lower ; inferior; ab inferiore parte, below, down stream; sup., infimus or imus, lowest, last; with collis, the base of; ad infimum, ab infimo, at the bottom. h«
specto, 1, tr. ifreq. of specie, see], look at, regard ; look, face, lie. 3.
20. sol, solis, m., the sun; ad OCCi- dentem solem, toward the setting sun or west; ad orientem solem, toward therising sun or east. :j:
Aquitania, -ae,/. (DEcd), Aquitania (ak"wi-ta'ni-a), southiuestern Gaul be- tween the Garonne and the Pyre- nees. ^
21. Pyrenaeus, -a. -um, adj., Pyre- nean; Pyrenaei montes (Ecde), the Pyrenaei (pir"e-ne'i), better, Pyrenees Mountains. 1.
mons, montis, m., mountain; moun- tain range; hill, height. H«
22. Hispania, -ae, /. (Eabcd), His- pania (his-pa'm-a), better, Spain. 2.
occasus, -us, m. [occidd, fall, set], falling down, setting; with soils, sun- set; the west. 4.
19. in septentriones . . . solem:
J. e , toward the northeast.
22. ad Hispaniam, "near Spain"; the reference is to the Bay of Biscay.
inter occasum . . . septentridnes: i. e., toward the northwest.
Chap. 2-4. The ambition and dcwTi- fall of Orgetorix.
Chap. 2. Orgetorix persuades the Helvetii to invade G-aul.
1. nobilissimus: caseFApp. 156; 1.57:
G.-L. 205; 211: A. 283; 284; 286: B. 1^33, 1,
S; 234: H.-B. 316; 317, 3: H. 394.
1. apud, prep, with ace, at, among, near, with; {with persons) y^t the house of, in the presence of. ^
nobilis, -e, adj. [nosco, know], well known, distinguished, noted; of noble birth, noble; as noun, a noble. :{:
dives, divitis, adj., wealthy, rich. Sup., ditissimus. l.
2. Orgetorix, -igis, m., Orgetorix (or-jet'6-riks), a chief of the Helvetii. :{:
M., abbr. for Marcus (mar'kus), a Roman praenomen. ^
Messala, -ae, m., Marcus Valerius Messala (mar'kus va-le'ri-us me-sa'la), consul, 61 B.C. 2.
Piso, -onis, m., Marcus Pupius Piso Calpurnianus (mar'kus pu'pi-us pi's5 kal-per"ni-a'nus), consul with Messala, 61 B.C. 2.
consul, -ulis, m., a consul, one of the two chief magistrates elected annually by the Roman people. ^
regnum, -i, n. [rex, king], kingly or royal authority, royal power, sover- eignty; kingdom. :fc
cupiditas, -tatis,/. [cupidus, eager], eagerness, desire, greed, avarice. 3.
2. M. Messala . . . consulibus, "In
the consulship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso." Case? App. 150: G.-L. 409; 410: A. 419, a; 420, 1: B. 227, 1, 2, a: H.-B. 421, 1: H. 489, 1. These men were consuls in the year 61 b. c, three years before Caesar went to Gaul. In giving dates the Romans designated the year by naming the consuls of that year.
regni: case? App. 98: G.-L. 363, 2: A. 347; 348, note: B. 200: H.-B. 354: H. 440, 3.
50
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 2
ditate inductus coniurationem nobilitatis fecit et civitati
persuasit ut de f inibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent :
5 Perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totius Galliae
3. indtico, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tum, tr. [duco, lead], lead or draw on; induce, influence, instigate; cover. 4.
coniuratid, -onis,/. [conitiro, swear
together], a swearing together; plot, conspiracy; secret league, confeder- acy. 3.
nobilitas, -tatis, /. [nobilis, well known], celebrity; noble birth, nobility, rank; the nobility, the nobles. 3.
facio, facere, feci, factum, tr. and intr.: tr., make, construct, form, do, execute {commands, etc.); give {oppor- tunity, etc.) ; with ut, bring about, cause: intr., do, act. Pass., fid, fieri, factus sum (App. 83), 7.vith passive of above meanings, and, used impersonally, result, happen, come to pass. ^
civitas, -tatis, /. [civis, citizen], citizenship; the citizens {as forming a community), state, city, jj:
4. persuaded, -suadere, -suasi, -suasum, tr. and intr. [suadeo, advise], advise prevailingly; convince, persuade, prevail upon; inculcate; sibi persua- der!, be convinced. ^
Ut and uti, adv. and conj., (1) as inter- rog. adv., how? (2) as rel. adv. and conj.^ as, in proportion as, just as; insomuch as; as if: (3) as conj. (a) witfi ind., when, after; (b) withsubj., that, in order that, to ; that, so that, so as to ; though, al- though; after -words of fearing, that not. 1,2.
copia, -ae, /., supply, plenty, abundance, number; pi., resources; forces, troops. ^
exeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, intr. [eo, go. App. 84], go from or out, depart from, leave. 2.
5. perfacilis, -e, adj. [facilis, easy], very easy. 2.
3. coniurationem: the real purpose of the conspiracy was to make Orgetorix king, although the Helvetii, like most Gallic peoples, had no king. See Int. 29. His real reasons for wishing the people to emigrate were (1) that by making himself leader of the emigra- tion he could get power enough to make himself king; and (2) that as king he wished to conquer the other states of Gaul.
Civitati: case? App. 115: G.-L. 346: A. 367: B. 187, IT, a: H.-B. 362, footnote 3, {b) : H. 426, 2. The list of verbs given in this rule should be committed to memory.
4. Ut exirent: mode? App. 228, a: G.-L. 546, 1: A. 5ii3: B. 295, 1: H.-B. 502, 3, (a): H. 563, 1; 565.
c5piis here includes the women and children.
5. perfacile esse . . . potiri is indi- rect discourse, depending on a verb of saying implied in persuasit. Indirect discourse (App. 205) is very common in
Caesar, and for this reason its essential principles should be grasped as soon as possible. No reference to details of the construction will be given in 1, 1-29. The most essential fact to grasp is that when a declarative sentence is turned into indirect discourse the verb of the principal clause becomes an inlinitive: App. 266: G.-L. 648; 650: A. .580,«: B. 314, 1, 2: H.-B. 589: H. 642, 1. This infini- tive, however, cannot properly be trans- lated by an English infinitive. In the present instance, what Orgetorix said was, perfacile est . . . 2)otirl, "it is very easy to get control." The est has be- come esse, but the English equivalent is "(saying) that it was very easy to get control."
cum . . . praestarent, * since they excelled all in valor." virtiite: case? App. 149: G.-L. 397: A. 418: B. 226: H.-B. 441: H. 480. omnibus: case? App. 116,I: G.-L. 347: A. 370: B. 187, III, 1: H.-B. 376: H. 429. praestarent: mode? App. 239: G.-L.586: A. 549: B. 286, 2 : H.-B.526: H. 6»8.
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
61
imperio potiri. Id hoc facilius iis persuasit, quod undique loci iiatura Helvetii continentur ; una ex parte flumine Ulieno latissimo atque altissimo, qui agrum Helvetium a Germanls dividit; altera ex parte monte lura altissimo, qui est inter
praesta. -stare, -stiti, -statum, tr. and hitr. [sto, stand], stand or place before; show, exhibit, supply, furnish; be superior, excel, surpass; iinjjers., praestat, it is better or more advis- able. :^
totus, -a, -um, gen. totius (App. 33), adj., the whole, the whole of; entire, all; with force of adv., wholly, entirely. ^
6. imperium, -ri, n. [impero, com- mand], command, order; authority, sway, supreme power, dominion, sov- ereignty; supreme military command, highest ofiicial power. :^
potior, 4, intr. [potis, powerful], become master of, get control or pos- session of, obtain, capture. ^
facile, adv. [facilis, easy], easily, readily. Comp., facilius; sup., facillime (App. 41). H«
undique, adv. [unde, whence], from all parts ; on all sides, everywhere. ^
7. locus, -1, m. {pi. loca, -orum, n.), place, position, locality, situation; topic, subject; condition, state; rank, family; opportunity; obsidum loco, as hos- tages. ^
natura, -ae, /. [nascor, be born], nature; natural disposition, character; constitution. ^
e {only before consonants), ex (before voivels and some consonants), j^rep. with abl., originally denoting motion out of; (1) of place, out of, from, away from; denoting position, in some phrases, on; una ex parte, on one side: (2) of time, from, after, since; ex itinere, imme- diately after the march: (3) variously translated in other relations, from, out of, of, because of, in accordance with; e regidne, opposite. ^
8. latus, -a, -um, adj., broad, wide, extensive. 4.
altus, -a, -um, adj., high, lofty; deep; neut. as noun, the deep, the sea. H«
ager, agri. m., field, land; district, territory, rjc
9. alter, -era, -erum, gen. alterius (App. 32), the other {of two); second; the one; alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other; alter! . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other. ^
lura, -ae, m. (Cg), the Jura (ju'ra) inountains. 3.
totius . . . potiri: i. e., the Hel- vetii were to do what the Haedui and the Sequani were trying to do. See Int. 29. imperio: case? App. 14.5: G.-L. 407:
A. 410: B. 218, 1: H.B. 429: H. 477, I.
6. id . . . persuasit, lit. 'he per- suaded this (id) to them more easily on this account (Jiocy = "he persuaded them to this course the more easily." hoc: case? App. 138: G.-L. 408: A. 404:
B. 219: H.-B. 444: H. 475. iis: cf. civitdtl, l. 3.
quod continentur: mode? App. 244: G.-L. 540: A. 540: B. 286, 1 : H.-B. 554; 555: H. 588, I. See the map for the details that follow.
7. loci: case? App. 99: G.-L. 362: A. 943: B. 198: H.-B. 339: H. 440. 1.
natura: case? App. 143: G.-L. 401: A. 409: B. 218: H.B. 423: H. 476.
8. aGermanis: case? App. 134: G.-L. 390, 1,2: A. 401: B. 214, 2: H.-B. 408, 1, a: H. 461. We have learned in 1, 12-14, that the Rhine did not prevent frequent bat- tles with the Germans. Later in his work Caesar implies that the pressure of the Germans was one of the reasons for the emigration of the Helvetii. On the other hand, the certainty that Germans would occupy Helvetia was one of the reasons why Caesar would not let the Helvetii emigrate. See Int. 3.
9. altera ex parte: "on a second side." Notice how often a monosyllabic preposition stands between an adjec- tive and its noun.
52
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAK, 1, 2
10 Sequanos et Helvetios; tertia lacu Lemanno et flumine Rhodauo, qui provinciam nostram ab Helvetiis dividit. His rebus fiebat ut et minus late vagarentur et minus facile fini- timis bellum jnferre possent; qua ex parte homines bellandi eupidi magno dolore afficiebantar. Pro multitudine autem
10. lacus, -us, 7/1., lake. 3.
Lemannus, -i(with or ivithout lacus), m. (Cg), Lake Lemannus (le-man'us), better. Lake Leman, or the Lake of Geneva. 3.
12. res, rei, /., of indefinite meaning; 'variously translated according to the context; thing, object, matter, event, affair, occurrence; circumstance, case; act, action, deed; reason, ground; res familiaris, property; res frumen- taria. supplies ; res militaris. warfare ; novae res, revolution; res puhlica, state; res actae, deeds, achievements; Quam Ob rem, see qui and quis. :fp.
minus, adv. comp. [parvus, little], less; not at all, too little; quo minus, see quominus. sjc
late, adv. [latus, wide], widely, exten- sively; longe lateque, far and wide. 4.
vagor, 1 , intr. [vagus, roaming], roam about, rove, wander. 4.
finitimus, -a, -um, adj. [finis, limit, border], bordering on, adjoining, neigh- boring; pi. as noun, neighbors. ^
13. infera, inferre, intuli, illatum, tr. [ferd, bear], bear into, import, inflict, cause, produce; cast into; in equum inferre, mount on a horse; causa illata, making an excuse; signa in- ferre, advance the standards, attack. ^
possum, posse, potui, , (App. 80),
intr. [potis, able^sum, be], be able, can; to have power or influence, have strength, be strong; with quam and sup., as possible, e.g. quam pltirimas possunt, as many as possible; mul- tum posse, plus posse, and plurimum posse, see multum. ^
homo, -inis, m., human being, man, as distinguished from the lower animals; in pi., mankind, humanity, men. -^
bello, 1, intr. [bellum, war], make or carry on war, wage war. 3.
14. cupidus, -a, -um, adj. [cupio, desire], eager, desirous, zealous, fond. 2.
magnus, -a, -um, adj., great (in. size, quantity, or degree), large, abun- dant, much; important, extensive; loud {voice); high (tide); magni (gen. sing, neut.), of great importance; magnis itineribus by forced marches. Comp., maior; sup., maximus. ^
dolor, -oris, m. [doleo, grieve], grief, distress, pain (physical or mental), vex- ation, annoyance. 3.
afflcio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum, tr. [ad+facio, do], do to, treat, affect; magno dolore aflacere, to annoy greatly. 3.
pro, prep, with ahl. [cf. prae, before], before, in front of; for, in behalf of; on account of, in coTisiJeration of, in
10. tertia: sc. ex parte. The fourth boundary, not mentioned here, was formed by the Alps.
11. liis ... fiebat, lit. "by these things it was brought about" = "the result was."
12. Ut vagarentur: mode? App. 229, h\ G.-L. 553,3: A. 569, 2: B. 297, 2: H.-B. 621, 3, a: H. 571,1.
minus, "less" than they desired. finitimis: for case cf. omnibus, 1.5.
13. qua ex parte, "and on this ground": use of relative? App. 17.1, a: G.-L. 610,1: A. 308,/: B, 251, 6: Il.-D. 284,8: H. 510.
homines . . . cupidi, "being men who were desirous of fighting." bel- landi: construction? App. 287; 291 : G.-L. 425; 428: A. 502; 504: B. 338, \,b: H.-B. 611; 612,1: H. 624; 626.
14. pr5 . . . hominum, 'considering the great size of the population. "
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
53
hominum et pro gloria belli atque fortitudinis angustos se 16 fines habere arbitrabantur, qui in longitudinem milia passuum CCXL, in latittidinem clxxx patebant.
3. His rebus adducti et auctoritate Orgetorlgis permoti
return for; as. In the disguise of ; in place of, instead of ; in proportion to, accord- ing to; in compounds {written pro, pro, and prod) , for, before, forward, forth. :^
multittido, -inis,/. [multus, much], a great number, multitude; the mul- titude, the common people, the popu- lace. Hj
autem, conj., but (a iveak advers- ative); however, on the other hand; now; moreover. :|c
15. gloria, -ae, /., glory, renown, honor, fame, reputation. 2.
fortitudo, -inis, /. [fortls, brave], bravery, courage. 1.
angustus, -a, -um, adj. [ango, squeeze], compressed, confined, strait- ened, narrow; in angusto, in a critical condition. :|c
16. habeo, 2, tr., have, hold, possess ; think, consider, regard; deliver {with oratidnem ) ; in animd habere, intend ; rati5nem habere, have regard for; take care or see that {followed by an ut clause); consilium habere, form a plan; in numero hostium habere, consider as enemies; alitor se habere, be otherwise or different; for habere toith pf. pass, part., e.g. vectigalia re- dempta habere, see App. 286, h. h?
arbitror, i, tr. and intr. [arbiter, umpire], decide; think, believe, sj:
longitudd, -inis, /. [longus, long], length, extent; long duration. 1.
miUe, indecl. num. adj., a thou-
sand; pi. as noun, milia, -ium, n., thou- sands (usually followed by genitive); milia passuum, thousands of paces, miles. :}:
passus, -us, m. [pandd, extend], a pace, the distance from where the foot leaves the ground to where the same foot strikes it again, a measure of 4 fett^ 10 1-4 inches {five Roman feet) ; mille passus or passuum, a Boinan mile, 4851 feet. 5j:
17. ducenti, -ae, -a (CC), card. num. adj. [duo, t wo -f centum, hundred], two hundred. >j«
quadraginta (XL), card. num. adj., indecl., forty, 2.
latitude, -inis, /. [latU3, wide], width, extent, breadth. ^
centum (C), indecl. card. num. , a hun- dred. 4.
octoginta (LXXX), card. num. adj., indecl. [octo, eight], eighty. 3.
pate5, -ere, -ui, , intr., lie or be
open, be passable; stretch out, ex- tend. 4.
1. adduco, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tum, tr. Ldiico, lead], lead or draw to, bring to; induce, influence. ^
auctoritas, -tatis, /. [auctor, pro- ducer], influence, character, authority, reputation, i^
permoveo, -movere, -movl, -mo- tum, tr. [moved, move], move thorough- ly, arouse, incite, excite; affect, influ- ence, i^
15. se: case? App. 123: G.-L. 343, 2: A. 397, e: B. 184: H.-B. 398: H. 415.
angustos fines, "(too) narrow lim- its." fines: case? App. 124: G.-L. 330: A. 387: B. 172: H.-B. 390: H. 404. Caesar has somewhat overstated the size of Helve- tia, because he had to depend on the re-
ports of the Gauls. It comprised rather more than half of modern Switzerland. According to chap. 29 the population was 263,000, while Switzerland now has a population of about 3,000,000.
16. milia: case? App. 130: G.-L. 335: A. 425: B. 181: H.-B. 387, I: H. 417.
54
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 3
constituerunt ea quae ad proficlscendum pertinerent comparare, iumentorum et carrorum quam maximum numeram coemere, sOmentes quam maximas facere, ut in itinere copia frumenti 5 suppeteret, cum proximis civitatibus pacem et amicitiam con- {irmare. Ad eas res conficiendas bieiininm sibi satis esse duxe-
2. cdnstituo, -stltuere, -stitui, -stitutum, tr. [statuo, set up], set up, erect, construct; appoint, decide, de- cree, determine, establish, set, settle; {of troops) draw up, station ; {of ships) an- chor, station; raise (a legion), sjc
proficiscor, proficlsci» profectus sum, intr. [cf. proficio, advance], set out, start, depart; set out for, start for; go, proceed. Hj
comparo, l, tr. [par5, prepare], pre- pare, get ready ; acquire, gain, secure ; prepare for. ^
3. iiimeiitum, -i, n. [iungo, join, yoke], yoke or draft animal, beast of burden. 2.
carrus, -i, m., cart. *
quam, (l) adi\, (a) interrog., how? (b) reL, as; wit/i sup. and with or without posse, as ... as possible, very; quam diu, as long as; (2) conj. with comp., than; prius . . . quam, before; post . . . quam, postea . . . quam, after, ip.
maximus, -a, -um, adj. [sap. o/mag- nus, great. App. 42], greatest, largest. :^
numerus, -i, m., number, quantity, amount; account; in numero, with gen., among, as. H«
coemo, -emere, -emi, -emptum, tr. [emo, buy], buy, buy up. i.
4. sementis, -is, /. [semen, seed], sowing. 1 .
iter, itineris, n. [eq, go], route, road; journey, march; passage; facere iter, march, travel; magnis itineribus, by forced marches. ^
frumentum, -I, n., grain; pi., crops, i^
6. suppeto, -petere, -petivi. -peti- tum, intr. [sub-f-peto, seek, obtain], be near or at hand ; be in store, be supplied, hold out. 2.
pax, pads,/., peace; favor. 2.
amicitia, -ae, /- [amicus, friend], friendship. :j«
confirmo, l, tr. [firmd, strengthen], establish, strengthen, encourage, con- sole; declare, assert, sjc
6. confici6,-ficere,-feci, -fectum,^r. [facio, make], make or do thoroughly, complete, accomplish, finish; finish
Chap. 3. The Helvetii make prep- arations, Orgetorix conspires -with other chiefs.
2. ad proficlscendum: construction? App. 287; 293: G.-L. 426; 432: A. 502; 506: B. 338, 3: H.-B. 611 ; 612, III: H. 624; (:28.
comparare, coemere, facere, con- firmare all depend on cdnstituerunt : 'Lhey decided to get ready .... to buy . . ., to sow . . ., and to establish ..."
3. iumentorum: especially oxen: case? App. 101: G.-L. 368: A. 346, a: B. 201, 1: H.-B. 346: H. 440,5; 441.
quam maximum numerum, "as great a number as possible" or *'as many . . . as possible."
4. ut copia suppeteret, "in order
that a supply might beat hand": mode? App. 225, a, 3: G.-L. 544, I: 545,1, 3: A. 531, 1: B. 282, 1: H.-B. 502,2: H. 568.
5. cum . . . confirmare: although the Helvetii were warlike they wished to march peaceably while encumbered with their women and children and baggage train.
cum proximis civitatibus: the Se- quani, AUobroges, etc. For case see App. 140: G.-L. 392: A. 413: B. 222: H.-B. 418; 419, 1 : H. 473, 1.
6. ad . . . conficiendas, lit. "for these things to be completed" = ''for completing these preparations. ' ' Study
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
55
runt; in tertium annum profectionem lege confirmant. Ad eas res conficiendas Orgetorix deligitur. Is sibi legationem ad civitates snscipit. In eo itinere persuadet Castico, Cataman- taloedis filio, Sequano, cuius pater regnum in Sequanis multos u annus obtinuerat et fi senfitu populi Romani amicus appellatns
up, exhaust, weaken; furnish; dress (leather). >f«
biennium, -ni, n. [bis, twice+an- nus, year], two years. 1.
satis, adv. and indecl. adj. and noun; {\) as adv.y enough, sufficiently; rather; very; well; (2) as ac(/. , sufficient ; (3) as no any enough. H^
duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, tr., lead, conduct, guide, draw; bring, fetch; trace, construct, extend; deem, con- sider, judge; protract, defer. ^
7. annus, -i, m., year, sfc profectio, -onis, /. [proficiscor, set
out], a setting out, start, depar- ture. 3.
8. deligo, -ligere, -legi, -lectum, tr. [lego, choose], pick out, select, choose. ?{:
legatio, -onis, /. [lego, delegate], embassy, legation; commission. ^
9. suscipio,-cipere,-cepi,-ceptum,
tr. [su(b)S-|-capi5, take], take o?' lift up; undertake, assume, take on one's self; begin, engage in. H«
CasticuB, -i, m., Casticus (kas'ti- kus). 1.
Catamantaloedis, -is, m., Cataman- taloedis (kat^'a-man^aa-le'dis). 1.
10. f ilius, -li, m.y son. 4.
pater, -tris, m., father; in pi., fore- fathers, ancestors; pater familiae, father or head of a family. ^
multus, -a, -um, adj., much, great; pL, many; with abl. denoting timewhen, late; as noun, many persons or things; comp. plus, pltiris, more; as noun, more; pL, more, several, many; sup., plurimus, -a, -um. most; pi., very many. ^
11. senatus, -us, m. [senex, old], a body of old men; senate; esp., the admin- istrative council of Botne. ^
populus, -i, in., the people, the mass,
carefully this very common gerundive construction: App. 288; 293: G.-L. 427; 432: A. 503; 506: B. 339, 1, 2: H.-B. 609; 610; 612, III: H. 623; 628. Compare with It the gerund in 1. 2. Notice that ad governs res and that conficiendas is an adjective in agreement with res. App. 157: G.-I^. 289: A. 286: B. 234: H.-B. 320: H. 394. But conficiendas must be trans- lated as if it were a verbal noun (gerund) governing res as its object.
sibir case? App. 120: G.-L. 350, 2: A. 37G: B. 188, 1: H.-B. 361), a (or 362, 1): H. 425, 4.
biennium. . . duxerunt, "they judged that two years were sufficient." DUco with this meaning is followed by indirect discourse: cf. 2, 5. The Helvetii in- tended to spend the years 60 and 59 in preparation and to leave home in the spring of 58.
7. cdnfirmant: tense? App. 190, a: G.-L. 229: A. 469: B. 259, 3: H.-B. 491, 1: H. 532, 3. Caesar uses the historical pres- ent much more freely than English idiom permits it to be used in translat- ing. It is best always to translate by a past.
8. sibi suecipit, "he took on him- self." For case cf. omnibus, 2, 5.
9. Castico: case? App. 115: G.-L. 346, R. 2: A. 367: B. 187, II: H.-B. 362, I, footnotes, &: H. 426, 2.
10. filio, Sequan5: case? App. 95, ^>: G.-L. 320: A. 281 ; 282: B. 169, 1, 8, 3: H. B. 316,317,2, a: H. :^93, 1.
11. annds: case? App. 130: G. L. 336: A. 423, 2: B. 181, 1: H.-B. 387, II: H. 417.
obtinuerat, "had held." Always be suspicious of a translation which sounds like the Latin word. It may be
56
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 3
erat, ut regnum in civitate sua occuparet, quod pater ante
habuerat; itemque Dumnorigi Haeduo, fratri DiviciacT, qui
eo tempore principatum in civitate obtinebat ac maxime plebi
15 acceptus erat, ut idem conaretur persuadet, eique f iliam suam
the crowd, a» opposed to individuals; a people or nation. H^
Romanus, -a, -um, adj. [Roma, Rome], Roman; as noun, a Ro- man. 5K
amicus, -a, -um, adj. [amo, love], friendly, well disposed; devoted; as noun, 771., a friend, an ally. Hj
12. occupo, 1, tr. [ob+capio, take], take possession of , seize, occupy ; engage, employ. ^
ante, (l) adv., before, above, pre- viously; (2) prep. w. ace, before, in advance of. H«
13. item, adv., in like manner, so, also, just so. :ic
Dumnorix, -Igis, m., Dumnorix (diim'no-riks), a Haeduan chieftain, brother of Diviciacus. Hi
Haeduus, -a, -um. adj. (Cef), of the Haedui (hed'u-i); Haeduan; as noun, a Haeduan; pL, the Haedui, possibly Haed- uans, one of the most powerful of the Gallic tribes. H«
f rater, -tris, m., brother. ^
Diviciacus, -i, m., Diviciacus (div'l-
shi-a'kus), a chief of the Haedui, friend- ly to the Romans. ^
14. tempus, -oris, n. , a division or section of time, a time, time {in general) ; occasion, crisis; omni tempore, al- ways; in reliquum tempus, for the future; uno tempore, at the same time, at once. H^
principatus, -us, m. [princeps, chief], chief place or position; chief authority, leadership. 4.
magis, adv., comp. [magnus, great], more, rather, in a higher degree; »up. maxime, especially, in the highest de- gree; mostly, mainly. Hi
plebs, plebis, or plebes, -ei,/., pop- ulace, common people. 3.
15. acceptus, -a, -um, adj. [pf. part. o/accipi5, accept], acceptable, beloved by (ivith dative). 1.
idem, eadem, idem (App. 58), dem. pron. [is, this, that], the same; this very; idem at que, the same as. H«
Conor, 1, intr., attempt, endeavor, try. Hi
filia,-ae,/., daughter. 4.
right, but it is very likely to be wrong. ••Obtained" would be wrong here.
a senatti: case? App. 137: G.-L. 401: A. 405: B. 216: H.-B. 406,1: H. 468.
amicus: an honorary title often granted to foreign states or chiefs by the Roman Senate In recognition of special services or to attach them to Roman interests.
12. ut occuparet, '*to seize." This clause is the object oi persuadet in 1. 10: mode? App. 228, a: G.-L. 546, 1, 2: A. 563: B. 295, 1: H.-B. 502, 3, a: H. 563, 1; 565. Cf. ut suppeteret, 1. 4, which is not used as an object.
13. Dumnorigi: younger than Div- iciacus, and a bold leader of the anti- Roman party among the Haedui.
Haedu5: the Haedui were the rivals of the Sequani for the leadership among the Gallic states. See map, and Int. 29.
qui: i.e. Dumnorix.
14. tempore: case? App. 152: G.-L. 393: A. 423, 1: B. 230: H.-B. 439: H. 486.
principatum. "the leading posi- tion"; but he was not a magistrate.
plebi: case? App. 122: G.-L. 359: A. 384: B. 192, 1: H.-B. 362, footnote 3, a: H. 434, 2.
16. ut idem conaretur, "to attempt the same thing"; i.e. attempt to over- throw the constitutional government and make himself king.
ei: case? App. IH: G.-L. 315: A. 368; B. 187, I: H.-B. 365: H. 424; 425, 1.
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
57
in matrimonium dat. Perfacile factu esse illis probat coiiata perficere, propterea quod ipse suae civitatis imperiuin obtenttirus esset: Non esse dubium quin totius Galliae plurimum Helvetii possent: se suTs copiis suoque exercitu illis regna conciliaturum confirmat. Hac oratione adducti inter se fidem et ius iurandum 20
16. matrimonium, -ni, n. [mater, mother], marriage, wedlock, matrimony ; In matrimonium dare, to give in mar- riage; in matrimonium ducere, to marry (said, of the man ) . 2.
do, dare, dedi, datum (App. 85), tr., give, bestow, present, grant, furnisli; offer; yield, give up; in fugam dare, put to flight; dare mantis, yield; dare negotium, with dat., employ, engage, direct. {Some compounds of d5 are derived from an obsolete verb, d5, put). 4.
ille, ilia, illud, gen. illius, dat. iiii (App. 56), dem. pron. {of what is remote in time, place, thought, etc., cf. hie), that, that man, woman, or thing; he, she, it; hie . . . ille, the latter . . . the former, see App. 170, a. 4.
probo, 1, tr. [probus, good], consider good, approve; prove, show, demon- strate. 3.
conatum, -i, n. [conor, try], attempt, undertaking. 1.
17. perficio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum, tr. [facio, make, do], make or do thor- oughly or completely, complete, finish ;
construct, build; achieve, accomplish, cause. :ic
18. non (App. 188, a), adv., not; no. * dubius, -a, -um, adj., uncertain,
doubtful. 1.
QUin, conj, [qui, who or how-hne, negative], that not, but that; after nega- tive words of doubt or hindrance, but that, that, from, to; quin etiam, nay even, moreover. :j:
multum, ad}), [ace. of multus, much], much, very, greatly, especially; comp, plus, more; plus posse, be more able or powerful, have more influence ; p^ip. pliirimum, most, very; plurimum posse, be most powerful; be very pow- erful or influential. :ic
19. exercitus, -us, m. [exerceS, train], a trained or disciplined body of meii, an army. ^
concilio, 1, tr. [concilium, assembly], bring together; gain or win over, se- cure; reconcile, conciliate. 1.
20. oratid, -onis, /. [oro, speak], a speaking, speech, language, words, ad- dress, argument. ^J
fides, -ei,/. [fido, confide], faith, con-
16. perfacile . . . perficere, lit. "he shows to them to accomplish the at- tempts to be very easy to do [facta, the supine]" = "he showed them that it was very easy to carry out the undertak- ing." esse: cf. 2, 5.
17. propterea quod obtenttirus esset, lit. "because he was about to seize upon" = "because he intended to seize upon." The clause is causal, like propterea qitod absunt in 1, 6; but the subjunctive is used because it is a sub- ordinate clause in indirect discourse. The second important fact about in- direct discourse (cf. 2, 5) is that all
subordinate verbs which in the direct form were either indicatives or sub- junctives must be subjunctives in the indirect form: App. 269: G.-L. 650: A. 580: B. 314, 1 : H.-B. 534, 2, I; 535, 2: H. ()43.
18. non . . . quin, '(he proved that) there was no doubt that."
19. se illis conciliaturum (sc. esse), "that he would win for them." Esse is usually omitted from the future infin- itive.
illis: i.e. for Casticus and Dumnorix.
20. hac oratione, **by this argu- ment."
inter se, "to one another."
58
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 4
dant et, regno occupato, per tres potentissimos ac firmissimos popiilos totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant.
4. Ea res est Helvetiis per indicium enuntiata. Moribus suls Orgetorigem ex vinculis causam dicere coegerunt; damiuitum poenam sequi oportebat, ut igni cremareturi Die
tidence; faithfulness, loyalty, trustwor- thiness; allegiance, protection, de- pendence; pledge, assurance; fidem facere, convince, give a pledge; fidcxn sequi, surrender. ^
ius iurandum, iuris iurandl, n- [ius, right+itiro, swear], an oath. ^
21. per, prep, with ace, through, throughout; by means of, through the agency of, on account of, through the efforts or influence of; per se, of their own accord, on their own responsibility ; sometimes with intensive force, in itself, themselves; in composition, through, very, thoroughly, completely. ^
potens, -entis, adj. [pres. part, of possum, be able], powerful, influ- ential. 4.
firmus, -a, -um, adj., strong, stable, vigorous, firm. 3.
22. sper5, 1, tr. [spes, hoi)e], hope, hope for, anticipate. 2.
1. indicium, -ci.rt. [indico, disclose], disclosure, information; per indicium, through informers. 1.
enuntio, l, tr. [nuntio, announce], report, declare, disclose, jjc
21. regn5 occupato potiri posse sperant, "they hoped that after they had seized the royal power [each in his own land] they could get control of." regnd occupato: case^ App. 150: G -L.
409; 410: A. 419: B. 227, 2, a H.-B. 421,3: H. 489, 1. Latin is very fond of the abla- tive absolute: English very seldom uses its corresponding idiom, the nomina- tive absolute. Never translate an ab- lative absolute literally "The royal power having been seized" is wretched English.
per tres popul5s: i.e. the Helvetii, the Sequani, and the Haedui.
22, Galliae; case? App. ill: G.-L.
mos, moriSj w^., manner, custom, practice; pi., customs, habits; charac- ter. ?Jc
2. vinculum, -i, n. [vincio, bind], bond, fetter, chain. 3.
cogo, cogere, coegi, coactum, tr. [co-hago, lead], lead or bring together, collect, draw together, assemble; force, compel, constrain. :{«
3. damno, l, tr. [damnum, damage]-; declare guilty, sentence, condemn. 1.
poena, -ae, /., punishment, pen- alty. 3.
sequor, sequi, secutus sum, tr. and intr., follow, follow after, pursue; ac- company, attend; follow in point of time; ivith poena, be inflicted; fidem sequi, seek the protection. >j:
oportet, -ere, -uit, , intr. im-
pers., it is necessary, needful, becoming, proper ; when translated as personal verb, must, ought. ^
ignis, -is, m., fire. 4.
cremo, i, tr., burn. 2.
dies, -ei, m. and /., day; time; in dies, from day to day; diem ex die, day after day. *
407, n. 2, d: A. 410, a: B. 212, 2: H.-B. 353: H. 477, 1, 3.
Chap. 4. Orgetorix is tried for con- spiracy, but escapes. His sudden death.
1. ea res, ''this conspiracy." Helvetiis: case? App. il4,c: G.-L. .34.5.
A. 3 2; 365: B. 187, 1: H.-B. 365: H. 42r. 42.'^ 1.
moribus: case? App. M2, a: G.-L. :".)9. n. l: A. 418, a: B. 220, 3: H.-B. 414, a: H. 475, 3.
2. ex vinculis, "in chains." Cf. note on 1, 15.
3. damnatum . . . cremaretur, lit. "it was necessary for the punishment to
AMBITION OF ORGETORIX, B.C. 61
59
c5nstituta causae dictionis Orgetorix ad iiidicium omnem suam familiam, ad hominum milia decern, uiidique coegit, et s omnes clientes obaeratosque siios, quorum magnum numerum habebat, eodem conduxit; per eos, ne causam diceret, se eripuiL Gum civitas ob eam rem incittita armis ius siium exsequi conaretur, multitudinemque hominum ex agris
4. dictio, -onis, /• [dico, say] , speak- ing, pleading. 1.
iudicium, -ei, n. [itidex, judge], ju- dicial proceedings, trial; opinion, judg- ment; iudicium facere, express an opinion; iudicio, by design, pur- posely. 4.
5. familia, -ae,/., household (includ- ing slaves) ; retinue {including all depend- ents); family. 2.
decern (X), indecL card, num,, ten. *
6. cliens, -entis, w.,/. [clueo, hear, obey], client, vassal, dependent, re- tainer. 3.
obaeratus, -a, -um, adj, [aes, money], in debt; as noun, debtor. 1.
7. eodem, adv. [old dative of Idem], to the same place, to the same point (re- sult, end, etc.). ^
conduce, -ducere, -duxi, -ductum, tr. [duco, lead], lead or bring together, assemble; conduct; hire. 4.
ne (App. 188, h), (1) conj. ivith subj.,
follow (him) condemned that he should be burned with fire" = "if condemned it was necessary that the punishment of being burned be inflicted upon him." damnatum: use of participle? App. 283: G.-L. 667: A. 493: B.337, 2, 6: H.-B. 604, 3: H. 638, 2. ut cremaretur is a substantive clause in apposition with poenam; it is perhaps best taken as a substantive clause of result.
die: gender? App. 30, a: G.-L. 61: A. 97, a: B. 53: H.-B. 101: H. 135: case? App. 15'^: G.-L. 393: A. 423: B. 230, 1: H.-B. 439: H. 486.
die . . . dictionis, "on the day set for the pleading of the case." causae: case? App. 98: G.-L. 363, 2: A. 347; 348,
that . . . not, so that . . . not, in order that . . . not, lest; after verbs of fear- ing, that, lest: (2) adv., not; ne . . QUidem {enclosing the emphatic word), not even. ^
8. eripio, -ripere, -ripui, -reptum, ir. [rapio, seize], wrest or take away, extort, deprive; rescue, relieve, save. H«
ob, jjrep. with ace, on account of, for; in compounds, opposed to, to, tow\a,rd, against; quam ob rem, wherefore, why. i^
incite, 1, tr. [cito,put in motion], set in motion; incite, arouse, urge on, stim- ulate; exasperate; cursti Incitato, at full speed. ^
arma, -orum, n. pL, arms; equip- ment; by metonymy, battle, war. :ic
ius, iiiris, n., right, justice, law; rights; power, authority. ^
9. exsequor, -sequi, -secutus sum, tr. [sequor, follow], follow out, en- force. 1.
note: B.*500: H.-B. 354: H. 440, 2. dic- tionis: possessive genitive, limiting die.
5. ad, "about."
6. obaeratds: those who had become slaves on account of debt.
7. per eos, "by their help. "
ne . . . diceret, "to avoid pleading his case": mode? App. 225,6: G.-L. 545, 3: A. 531, 1: B. 282, 1: H.-B. 502, 2: H. 568.
8. cum conaretur . . . -que magis- tratiis cogerent, "when the state was attempting . . . and the magistrates were collecting": mode? App. 240; 242, a: G.-L. .'')85: A. 546, notes 1, 2, 3: B. 288,' b: H.-B.524: H. 600, II, 1.
60
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 5
10 magistratus cogerent, OrgetorTx mortuus est; neque abest suspicio, ut Ilelvetii arbitrantur, qnin ipse sibi mortem consciverit.
5. Post eius mortem nihilo minus Helvetii id quod con- stituerant facere conantur, ut e finibus suls exeant. Ubi iam se ad earn rem paratos esse arbitrati sunt, oppida sua omnia, numero ad duodecim, vices ad quadringentos, reliqua privata
5 aedificia incendunt ; frumentum omne, praeterquam quod secum
10. magistratus,-us,m. [magister, master], public office, magistracy; pub- lic officer, magistrate. ^
morior, mori, mortuus sum, intr, fmors, death], die. 2.
neque (nee) (App. 188, a), conj. [ne-+ quej, and not, not, nor; but not; neque . . . neque, neither . . . nor. ^
11. suspici6,-6nis,/. [suspicor, sus- pect], suspicion, distrust; cause for suspicion; indication, appearance. ^
mors, -tls, /., death; sibi mortem consciscere, commit suicide. 4.
12. conscisco, -sciscere, -sclvi, -scitum, t?\ I seised, resolve], resolve upon; sibi mortem consciscere, com- mit suicide. 3.
1. post, adv., and prep, with ace. (\)as adv., later, afterwards; (2) as prep. , hk'- hind, after; post tergum or post se, in the rear. ^
nihilo, adv., by no means; nihilo minus, nevertheless; nihilo setius, none the less, nevertheless. 3.
2. ubi, adv. (1) of place, in which place,- where; (2) of time, when, whenever; as soon as ; ubi primum, as soon as. ^
iam, adv., now, at this time; already, by this time, at last; really, indeed, even; neque iam or iam non, no longer; ubi iam, as soon as. ^
3. paro, l,tr., prepare, get ready ; pro- cure, acquire; prepare for, get ready for; paratus, pf. part, as adj., ready, prepared; equipped. ^
oppidum, -i, n., fortified town, town, stronghold. ^
4. duodecim, card. num. adj. [duo. two-f decern, ten] , twelve. 2.
vicus, -i, m., hamlet, village, ^i quadringenti, -ae, -a, card. num. adj., four hundred. 2.
privatus, -a, -um, adj., private, i)er- sonal, individual; as noun, person, in- dividual. 3.
5. aedificium, -ci, n. [aedifico, build], building, house. :^
incendd, -cendere, -cendi, -cen-
11. ut with the indicative usually means either "as', or "when."
quin . . . consciverit, "that he com- mitted suicide."
Chap. 5-8. Caesar thwarts the efforts of the Helvetii to cross the Rhone and march through the Roman Province.
Chap. 5. The Helvetii burn their dwellings and secure allies.
1. nihilo: case? App. 148: G.-L. 403: A. 414: B. 223: H.-B. 4--i4: H. 479, 1.
2. conantur: tense? App. 190, a: G-L. 2>9: A. 469: B. 259,3: H.-B. 491, 1: H. 532, 3.
Ut exeant, "(namely) to go forth," is a substantive volitive (or purpose) clause in apposition with id.
3. ad eam rem, "for the enterprise.'* paratos is the adjective.
esse, "were": indirect discourse.
oppida, vicos, aedificia: notice the absence of conjunctions, and cf. note on 1,3.
4. numero: case? App. 149; G.-L. 397: A. 418: B. 226: H.-B. 441: H. 480.
ad, "about."
5. secum : position of cu7n? App. .52, a : G.-L. 413, R. 1: A. 144, note 1: B. 142, 4: H.-B. 418, a: H. 17.5,7.
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
61
portilturi erant, comburunt, ut, domum reditionis spe sublata, parfitiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent; trium meiiaium molita cibaria sibi quemque domo efferre iubent. Persuadent Rauracis et Tulingis et Latobrigis, fmitimis, uti eodem usi
sum, tr. \cf. canded, shine], set fire to, tire, burn ; inflame, excite, if. praeterquam, ac?v., besides, except. 1.
6. porto, 1, tr., carry, transport, brint?, take. 3.
comburo, -urere, -ussi, -ustum, tr. [com(b)+ur6, burn], burn up. 1.
domus, -us (App. 29, d), /., house; home; native country, jfc
reditio, -onis, /. [redeo, return], return. 1.
spes, -ei, /., hope, anticipation, ex- pectation. :^
tollo, tollere, sustuli, sublatum, tr., lift, elevate; take on board; take away, remove-; do away with, destroy; cancel; sublatus, vf- part, as adj., elated. :^
7. periculum, -i, n., trial, test, at- tempt; risk, danger, peril, i^
subeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, tr. [eo, go. App. 84], come or go under, come up to, come up; undergo, endure. 4.
mensis, -is, ?/i., month. 3.
8. molo, -ere, -ui, -itum, ^r., grind, i. cibarius. -a, -um, adj. [cibus, food].
pertaining to food ; n. pi. as noun, pro- visions; molita cibaria, meal, flour. 2.
Quisque, quidque, and qulsque, quaeque, quodque, universal indef. pron. (App. 62), each one, each; every one, all. :^
effero, eflferre, extull, elatum, tr. [ex-f-fero, carry. App. 81], bring or carry out, carry or take away; raise; spread or publish abroad, make known; elate, puff up. 2.
iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum, tr., order, bid, command, enjoin. :(:
9. Rauraci, -drum, m. (Cg), the Rauraci (raw'ra-si). 3.
Tullngi, -drum, m. (Cgh), the Tulingi (tu-lin'ji), a Gallic tribe east of the Rhine. 4.
Latobrigi, -drum, m. (Bh), the Lato- brigi (lat"o-bri'jl), a Gallic tribe east of the Ehine. 3.
utor, titi, usus sum, intr., make use of, employ, use, avail one's self of, exer- cise; have, enjoy, experience, possess, show; adopt, accept; usus, pf. part. often translated with. ^
6. portaturi erant, lit. "they were about to take' ' = " they intended to take. ' '
ut essent is a purpose clause.
domum reditidnls, "of returning home." domum: case? App. 131: G.-L. 337: A. 427, 2: B. 182, 1, b: H.-B. 450, b: H. 419, 1.
spe sublata: translate the ablative absolute by a temporal clause.
7. ad . . . subeunda: construction? App. 288; 293: G.-L. 427; 432: A. 503; 506: B. 339, 1, 2: H.-B. 609; 610; 612, III: H. 623; 626.
trium menslum cibaria, "supplies for three months. ' ' menslum : case ? App. 100: G.-L. 365, 2: A. 345, 6: B. 203, 2: H.-B. 355: H. 440, 3. Napoleon III estimates
that 8,500 wagons, drawn by 34,000 draft animals, were needed to transport the necessary provisions and baggage of the Helvetian host: even this is probably an underestimate.
8. slbl: case? App. 120: G.-L. .352: A. 376: B. 188, 1: H.-B. 366: H. 425,4.
domo: case? App. 134, a: G.-L. 390, 2: A. 427, 1: B. 229, 1, b: H.-B. 451, a: H. 462, 4.
9. Uti . . . proficiscantur, lit. "that having used the same plan, their towns . . . having been burned, they set out along with them" = "to adopt . . ., to burn . . ., and to set out." conslUo: case? App. 145: G.-L. 407: A. 410: B.218, 1: H.-B. 429: H. 477.
62
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 6
10 consilio, oppidis suis vicisque exustis, una cum iis pro- ficiscantur; Boiosque, qui trans Rhenum incoluerant et in agrum Noricum transierant Noreiamque oppugnabanty receptos ad se socios sibi asciscunt.
6. Erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire
10. consilium, -li, n., consultation, deliberation; counsel, advice; plan, de- sign; measure, course of action; judg- ment; prudence, wisdom; an assembly for deliberation, council, council of war; communi consilio, by, or in accordance with, general action; publicd consilio, by action of the state; consilium cap- ere or inire, form or adopt a plan; consilium habere, tMnk, consid- er. H«
exuro, -tirere, -ussi, -ustum, tr. [uro, burn], burn up. t
una, adv. [unus, one], (1) of place, to- gether, along with, in one place; (2) of time, together, along with, at the same time, also. Hj
11. Boii, -iorum, m. (Ce), the Boii (b5'yi), a Celtic tribe once very powerful in southern Germany and Cisalpine Gaul. Those who joined the Helvetii were after- wards settled by Caesar as indicated on the map. ^
12. Noricus, -a, -um, adj. , pertaining to Noricum {a country between the Danube and the Alps), Norican. 2.
11. B6i5s is the object of asciscunt: App. 124: G.-L.. 330: A. 387: B. 172: H.-B. 390: H. 404.
12. receptos . . . asciscunt, lit. "the Boii, received to themselves [ad se], they admit to themselves [sibi] as allies" = "they received among their people and joined to themselves as as- sociates the Boii, who had," etc.
13. Sibi: case? App.116,1: G.-L. 347: A. 370: B. 187, 111,2: H.-B. 376, a: H. 429, 1.
As explained in the notes on 1, 1, each of the most common principles of syntax is referred to three times in the notes on I, 1-29. At the end of the chapter in which the third reference to any con- struction has been given, attention is
transed, -ire, -li, -itum, tr. and intr. [eo, go. App. 84], go across or over, cross; march through, pass through; move, migrate; of time, pass by. :jc
Noreia,-ae,/. (Ck), Noreia ( no-re' ya), a town in Noricum, now Neumarkt. 1.
oppugno, 1, tr. [ob+pugno, fight], fight against, attack, assault, etorm, besiege. ^ '
recipio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptum, tr. [re-H-capio, take], take or get back, recover ; admit, receive, receive in sur- render or submission ; admit of, allow ; with se, withdraw one's self, retreat, escape, flee, run back; recover one's self, if
13. socius, -ci, m. [cf- sequor, fol- low], companion; confederate, ally. :§:
ascisco, -sciscere, -scivi, -scitum, tr. [ad-hscisco, approve], approve; ad- mit or receive {as allies). 2.
1. omnino, adv. [omnis, all], at all; whatever; altogether, entirely, wholly; in all, only. H*
duo, duae, duo (App. 49), card. num. adj., two. ^
called to the fact; and if the pupil ha« not yet mastered the construction he should do so immediately.
Third References: Direct object Ablative of specification
Chap. 6. The Helvetii decide to march through the Roman Province.
1. erant, "there were.'*
Quibus itineribus, "by which." Cae- sar sometimes repeats the antecedent in the relative clause, where English usage requires its omission. Case? App. 144: G.-L. 389: A. 429, a: B. 218, 9: H.-B. 426, a: H. 476.
Quibus . . . possent, "by which they
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
63
possent: unum per Seqiianos, angustum et diflBcile, inter montem luram et flumeri Rhodanum, vix qua singuli carri ducerentur; mons autem altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent : alterum per provinciam nostram, 5 multo facilins atque expeditius, propterea quod inter fines Helve tiorum et Allobrogum, qui nuper pacati erant, Rhodanus fluit, isque non nuUis locis vado transitur. Extremum oppidum
2. difiacills, -e, adj. [facilis, easy], not easy, hard, troublesome, difficult. 3.
3. vix, adv., with difficulty, barely, hardly, scarcely. 4.
qua, adv. [ahl. fern, of qui], by which way or road ; in which place, where. ^
Binguli, -ae, -a, distrib. num. adj., one each, one; one at a time, single, sep- arate; each, every; the several; in annos singulos, annually. ^
4. impended, -pendere, , ,
intr. [in+pendeo, hang], overhang, im- pend. 3.
5. perpauci, -ae, -a, adj, [pauci, few], very few, but very few; 7n.pl. as noun, very few. 4.
6. multo, ac^t;. \abl. o/multus.much], by far, much. 4.
facilis, -e, adj. [facio, do], easy. 4.
expeditus, -a, -um, adj. [pf. part, of expedio, set free], unimpeded, free, un- obstructed; without baggage; light armed; as noun^ a light armed sol- dier. ^
7. Allobroges, -um, m. (Dfg), the Allobroges (a-15b'ro-jez), a powerful Gallic people in the Province, i^
nuper, adv., recently, not long ago. 3.
pac5, 1, tr. [pax, peace], make peace- ful, subdue, pacify; pacatus, pf. part, as adj., peaceful, quiet, subdued, sjc
8. fluo, fluere, fluxi, , mir., flow,
run. 2.
vadum, -i, n., ford, shallow. ^
could leave home," is a clause of char- acteristic: App. 230: G.-L. 631, 2: A. 535,a: B. 283, 1, 2: H.-B. 521, 1, a: H. 591, 1.
domo: case? App. 134, a: G.-L. 390, 2: A. 427, 1: B. 229, 1, b: H.-B. 451, o: H. 462, 4.
2. unum {iter) and alterum {itej^) are appositives of itinera duo ; App. 95, b: G.-L. 320: A. 281; 282, a: B. 169, 1,2,5: H.-B. 317, 2; 319, I, a: H. 393, 4. Study the two routes on the map, p. 70. The one involved passing through Pas de r Ecluse, the other involved crossing the Rhone.
3. vix: notice its emphatic position before the relative, and cf . note on quae pertinent, 1, 8.
4c ducerentur, * 'could be drawn." This is another subjunctive of charac- teristic, but it differs from possent in that here the subjunctive mode has the
potential meaning *'could": App. 230, (?: G.-L. 631, 2: H.-B. 517, 2. The place re- ferred to is Pas de 1' Ecluse: see max)« p. 70.
Ut possent: mode? App. 226: G.-L. 552: A. 537, 1: B. 284,i: H.-B. 521, 3, a: H. 570.
5. prohibere: sc. eds.
6. multo: case? App. 148: G.-L. 403: A. 414: B. 223: H.-B. 424: H. 479, 1.
7. nuper pacati erant: in 61 b.c, after a desperate struggle to regain their independence.
8. n5n nullis locis, '*at several points." Why is the preposition in not used? App. 151, 6: G.-L. 385, n. 1: A. 429, 1: B 228, 1, 6: H.-B. 436: H. 485, 2.
vado transitur, lit. "is crossed by a ford" = '^isfordable."
extremum: i.e. it is on the northern frontier.
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CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 6
AUobrogum est proximumque Helvetiorum finibus Genava.
10 Ex eo oppido pons ad Helvetios pertinet. AUobrogibus sese vel persuasuros, quod nondum bono animo in populum Roma- num viderentur, existimabant, vel vi coacturos ut per suos fines ^os ire paterentur. Omnibus rebus ad profectionem comparatis, diem dicunt qua die ad ripam Rhodani omnes
15 conveniant. Is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. April., L. Pisone A. Gabinio consulibus.
9. Genava, -ae, /. (Cg), Genava (jen'a-va), a city of the Allobroges, now Geneva. 3.
10. pons, pontis, w., bridge. *
11. nondum, at^^J. [non, not+dum] , not yet. :jc
bonus, -a, -um, adj., good, beneficial, profitable, well-disposed; (w'i^/i animo) friendly; as noun, bonum, -i, profit, advantage; bona, -drum, goods, prop- erty, estate; boni, :-orum, the good, good men or citizens. Cornp., melior; 9up., optimus (App. 42). He
12. videa, videre, vidi, visum, tr., see, perceive, observe, examine, under- stand i see to, take'care ; in pass., be seen ; seem, appear; seem proper, seem best. H«
existimo, l, tr. [aestimo], estimate, reckon, think, consider. 5|«
vel, conj. and adv. (1) as conj., or; vel . . . vel, either . . . or; (2) as adv., even. :^
Vis, vis (App. 27),/., force, might, en- ergy, strength; violence, severity; au- thority, power; a force, a great num- ber; pL, vires, strength, force; vim facere, use violence. :ic
13. eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum (App. 84), int?\, go, proceed, march, pass. *
patior, pati, passus sum, tr. and m^r., endure, withstand, suffer; permit, allow, sic
14. ripa, -ae,/.,bank {of a stream). :)c
15. convenio, -venire, -veni, -ven-
9. est might more naturally have stood before Genava.
10. AUobrogibus . . . persuasu- ros existimabant, "they thought they should either persuade the AUobroges." persuasuros {esse) is the principal verb in indirect discourse: cf. note on per- facile esse, 2, 5. In direct discourse their thought was persuddebimus, *'we shall persuade."
11. Quod viderentur is a subordi- nate clause in indirect discourse. App. 269: G.-L. 650: A. 580: B. 314: H.-B. 534, 2,1; 535,2: H. 643.
bond animd, "of *a friendly disposi- tion" or • 'well disposed. " Case ? App. 141 : G.-L. 400: A. 415: B. 224,1: H.-B. 443: H. 473, 2.
12. vel coacturos (e«5<?), "or should comi)el them": in the same construc- tion as persuasuros.
ut paterentur is a substantive voli- tive (or purpose) clause, the object of \iOXj\i persuasuros Sind coacturos.
13. omnibus rebus comparatis, "when they had made everything ready."
14. qua die: cf. note on quihue iti- nerihus, 1. 1.
qua die omnes conveniant, *'on which they should all assemble." Mode? App. 225, a, 1: G.-L. 545, 1: A. 531, 2: B. 282, 2: H.-B. 502, 1: H. 590.
16. a. d. V. Kal. April. = aw^e diem quintum Kalendas Aprlles = die quinto ante Kalendas Aprlles. The former phrase is idiomatic but can not be parsed. In all such reckonings the Romans count- ed both ends, while we count but one. The date here meant is the twenty- eighth of March, which we should consider the fourth day before the
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
65
7. Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, eos per provinciam nostram iter facere conari, maturat ab urbe proficisci, et quam maximis potest itineribus in Galliam ulteriorem contendit et ad Genavam pervenit. Provinciae toti quam maximum potest
turn, tr, andintr. [venio, come], come to- gether, assemble; convene, meet; come to, arrive; be agreed upon; imper- sonal, be convenient, suitable, neces- sary. H«
quintus, -a, -um, ord. num. adj. [quinque, live], fifth. 3.
Kal., abhr.for Kalendae, -arum, /., the Calends, the first day of the Roman month. 1.
April., ahbr. for Aprilis, -e, adj., of April, April. 3.
L., ahbr. for Lucius, Lucius (lu'- shyus), a Roman praenomen. >jc
PIso, -5nis, m.^ Lucius Calpurnius Piso (lu'shyus kal-per'ni-us pi' so), Caesar's father - in - law, consul 58
B.C. 2.
A., abbr.for Aulus (aw'lus), a Roman praenomen. 1. 16. Gabinius,-ni,w., Aulus Gabinius
(aw'lus ga-bin'i-us), consul with Lucius Piso, 58 B.C. 1.
1. Caesar, -aris, m., Gains Julius Caesar (ga'yus ju'li-us se'zar), con- queror of Gaul and author of the Com- mentaries. H«
nuntid, l, tr. [nuntius, messenger], announce, send news, report, make known; order, direct. :^
2. matiiro, 1, tr. and intr. [maturus, ripe], ripen; quicken, accelerate; make haste, hasten. 2.
urbs, urbis, /., city; especially, the city, Rome. 2.
3. Ulterior, -ius, adj., comp. [ultra, beyond. App. 43] , farther, more remote, ulterior. H^
4. pervenid, -venire, -veni, -ven- tum, intr. [venio, come], come through; come to, arrive at, reach; of property, fall, revert. H:
first of April, instead of the fifth. L. Pisone . . . consulibus; cf. note on 2, 2.
Third References :
Ajjposition Purpose clauses •
Chap. 7. Caesar hastens to Gaul and delays the Helvetii by a pretext.
1. Caesari: he had been consul in the year 59, and at the end of his year of office he had immediately become pro- consul of Gaul. Seelnt. 11, 12. He was at this time near Rome, preparing to leave for his province. The news merely hastened his movements.
cum nuntiatum esset: mode? App. 240; 242, a: G.-L. 585: A. 546, notes 1,2,3: B. 288, B: H.-B. 524: H. 600, II, 1.
id, "tht^s fact," is explained by its ap- positive, the clause, eos . . . condrl, "that they were planning, etc." eos: case? App. 123: G.-L. 203, R. 1; 343, 2: A. 397, e: B. 184: H.-B.398: H.415. conari: construc-
tion? App. 266: G.-L. 650: A. 580: B. 314, 1: H.-B. 589; 591: H. 642.
2. ab urbe, "from [near] the city," instead of ex urbe, because one who held a military command could not legally be in the city.
quam maximis potest itineribus, lit. "by (as great) day's journeys as the greatest he can" = "by as long day's journeys as possible." quam maximis itineribus would have meant the same thing. These two idioms are very com- mon in Caesar. We learn from Plu- tarch that Caesar traveled about ninety miles a day. itineribus : case ? App. 142 : G.-L. 399: A. 412: B. 220, 1: H.-B. 445, 2: H. 473, 3.
3. w\\,eT:ibTQva. = trdnsalplnam, "be- yond the Alps" from Rome.
4. ad Genavam: use of preposition? App. 131, a: G.-L. 337, R. 4: A. 428, a: B. 182, 3: H.-B. 453, 1: H. 418, 4.
provinciae imperat, "he levied upon tlie province. "
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CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 7
5 militum numerum imperat (erat omnino in Gallia ulteriore legio una), pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescindL Ubi de eius adventu Helvetii certiores facti sunt, legates ad eum mittunt, nobilissimos civitatis, cuius legationis Nammeius et Verucloetius principem locum obtinebant, qui dicerent sibi
10 esse in animo sine iillo maleficio iter per provinciam facere, propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum; rogare ut eius
5. miles, -itls, m., soldier, private soldier; infantry {opposed to equites); milites imperare, levy soldiers up- on, He
impero, l, tr. and intr. [in+paro, pro- cure], demand from, enjoin or levy up- on; command, order, instruct, rule. >{«
6. legio, -onis, /• [lego, choose], a legion. ^
rescindo, -scindere, -scidi, -scis- Bum, tr. [re— l-scindd, cleave], cut away or down, break down, destroy. 2.
7. adventus, -us, m. [venio, come], coming, arrival, approach. ^
certus, -a, -um, adj. [for cretus, pf. part, o/cerno], decided; certain, sure, fixed; certiorem facere, to Inform {ace. and inf.); order (ut or ne and subj.) ; certior fieri, he informed, h^
legatus, -i, m. [lego, delegate], one with delegated powers; ambassador, en- voy, legate; lieutenant, legatus. Hs
8. mittd, mittere, misl, missum,
tr., send, send off, dismiss, let go, dis- patch; hurl, discharge. Hs
Nammeius, -i, m., Nammeius (na-me'- yus). 1.
9. Verucloetius, -ti,m. , Verucloetius (ver'^u-kle'shyus), an Helvetian envoy, sent to Caesar. 1.
princeps, -ipis, adj. [primus, first-h capio, take], taking the first place; chief, most prominent, first; as noun, chief or principal person, leader, chief. Hj
10. sine, prep, with abl., without. H« uUus, -a, -um, gen., uUius (App. 32),
adj., a single, any; as noun, any one, anybody. ^
maleficium, -ci, n. [malum, evil-f- facio, do], evil doing, mischief, harm, injury. 4.
11. nullus,-a,-um,^m.,nullius,aa[;. [ne-4-ullus, any], not any, no; as noun, no one, none; non nuUus, some; as noun, some, some persons. H«
rogo, 1, tr., ask; request, ask for. ^c
6. militum: case? App. 101: G.-L. 398: A. 346, a, 1: B. 201, 1: H.-B. 346: H. 440,5; 441.
in Gallia: case? App. 151: G.-L. 385: A. 426, 3: B. 228: H.-B. 433: H. 483.
6. legio: this was the tenth, after- wards Caesar's favorite legion. On the organization of a legion see Int. 33.
7. certiores facti sunt, lit. "were made more certain" = *'were informed." certiores: case? App. 156; 157: G.-L. 211: A. 283; 284; 286: B. 233, 1, 2; 234: H.-B. 317, 3; 320, III: H. 394.
8. nobilissimos: used as a noun.
9. qui dicerent, *'who were to say"
="to say": a relative clause of purpose.
sibi esse in animo, "that they had in mind" or "intended." sibi: case? App. 117: G.-L.. 349: A. 373: B. 190: H.-B. 374: H. 430.
11. quod haberent is a subordinate clause in indirect discourse. Cf. 3, 17.
rogare (sc. se), "that they asked." The speakers said to Caesar rogamus, "we ask."
ut sibi liceat, "that it be permitted them" or "that they be allowed." For mode see App. 228, a: G.-L. 546, 1 : A. 563: B. 295, 1 : H.-B. 530, 2: H. 563, 1 ; 565.
eius: i.e. Caesar's.
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
67
Toluntate id sibi facere liceat. Caesar, quod memoria tenebat L. Cassiunr consulem occisum exercitumque eius ab HelvetiTs pulsum et sub iugum missum, concedendum^ nou putabat; neque homines inimico animo, dat.a facultate per provinciam is
12. voluntas, -tatis,/. [volo, wish] , ^ish, will, desire, inclination; goodwill, lavor; consent, approval. H^
licet, licere, licuit and licitum est, intr., impers., it is lawful, one has per- mission, it is permitted, one may, one is allowed; licet milii, I may; petere ut liceat, to ask permission. ^
memoria, -ae,/. [memor, mindful], the faculty of memory; recollection, memory, remembrance; tradition; me- moria tenere, remember; patrum me- moria, in the time of our fathers. ^
teneo, tenere, tenui, tentum, tr., hold, keep, occupy, possess, hold posses- sion of; hold in, restrain, bind; se tenere, remain; memoria tenere, re- member. ^
13. Cassius, -81, m.j Lucius Cassius Ijonginus (lii'shyus kash'yus 16n-gi^- nus), consul 107 B.C., slain in battle by the TigurinL 3.
occido, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum, tr. [ob+caedo, cut, slay], cut down, kill, slay. :J«
14. pello, pellere, pepuli, pulsum.
tr., beat, defeat, rout; drive out, ex- pel. 5fi
sub, x>rep. ivith ace. and abl. (1) With ace, {2i).with verbs of motion, under, be- neath; up to: (b) of time, just at, about, toward. (2) With abl., (a) of position, under, beneath; toward, near to; at the foot or base of: (b) of time, during, with- in: in compounds, sub or subs, under; up, away; from beneath; secretly; in succession; slightly. H^
iugum, -i, n. [iung5, join], yoke; ridge, crest, sfc
concedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessum, tr. and intr. [ced5, go], go away, depart, withdraw; grant, yield; allow, per- mit. ^
puto, 1, ^r., think, consider, believe. H«
15. inimicus,-a,-um,acZj. [in-+ami- cus, friendly], unfriendly, hostile; as noun, an enemy {personal), rival, to be distinguished from hostis, a public ene- my. 3.
facultas, -tatis, /. [old adj., facul =facilis, easy], power; opportunity, chance; resources, supply, ip.
12. voluntate is an ablative of ac- cordance.
tenebat: mode? App 244: G.-L. 540: A. 540: B.286, 1: H.-B.554; 555: H.588,I.
13. occisum, pulsum, 'missum are perfect passive infinitives in indirect discourse, and depend on memoria tene- bat, which is equivalent to a verb of knowing. The perfect infinitive repre- sen-ts the action as past at the time of tenebat; "that Lucius Cassius had been slain," etc.
ab Helvetiis: case? App. 137: G.-L. 401: A. 405: B. 216: H.-B. 406, 1: H. 468.
14. BUb iugum, *'under the yoke." This "yoke" was made of three spears, two planted in the ground and the third
fastened across them at a suitable height. Under this ^the soldiers of the captured army were compelled to pass, in token of submission and degradation.
concedendum {esse), "that permis- sion ought to be granted."
15. homines temperatures [esse)^ "that men would refrain." The future infinitive shows that a future indicative was used in the direct form. Caesar thought non temperabunt, "they will not refrain."
animo: case? App. 141: G.-L. 400: A. 41 n: B. 224, 1: H.-B. 443: H. 473, 2.
data facultate may be translated by a conditional clause; "if an opportunity should be given."
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CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR I, 7
itineris faciendi, temperatures ab iniuria et maleficio existi* mabat. Tamen, ut spatiam intercedere posset, diim milites quos imperaverat convenirent, legatis respondit diem se ad deliberandum sumpturum; si quid vellent, ad Id. ApriL 20 reverterentur.
16. tempero, l, intr., restrain or con- trol one's self, refrain ; temperatus, pf- j:?ar^. «5 a^J., temperate, mild. 2.
iniuria, -ae, /. [in-+ius, right], wrong, injustice; outrage, injury, harm, violence. :fc
17. tamen, adv. {opposed to some ex- pressed or implied concession), yet, never- theless, notwithstanding, still, however ; at least. 5|<
spatium, -tl, n.y space, distance, ex- tent, length of space ;^Qvio6. or length o/ time, hence time, opportunity. ^
intercede, -cedere, -cessi, -cessum, intr. [cedo, go], go or come between, lie between, intervene, be between ; pass. 4.
dum, conj., while, as long as; till, until. ^
18. responded, -spondere, -spondi, -sponsum, tr, and intr. [sponde5, promise], reply, answer. H«
19. delibero, l,tr. [libra, balance], weigh well; consider, deliberate. 2.
suni5, siimere, sumpsi, Biimptum, ^
tr. [sub+emo, take], takeaway, take; assume ; with supplicium, inflict ; loith labor, spend. ^^
81, conj.y if, if perchance; to see whether 07* if; whether; quod si, but if, now if. :jc
QUis, quid, 'and qui, quae, quod (App. 61 and 62), (1) interrog. pron., who? which? what? quam ob rem, why? quern ad modum, how? (2) indef.pron., especially after si, nisi, ne, num, any one, anything, any; somebody, some- thing, some. ^
volo, velle, volui, (App. 82), tr.
and intr., wish, be willing, want, desire; prefer, choose ; intend ; mean ; quid sibi vellet, what did he intend or mean ? :ic
idus, -uum, f.iPl', the Ides: the i5thof 3farch, Ma^j, July and October, and the 13th of other months. 1.
20. reverto, -vertere, -verti, -ver- sum, intr., used almost exclusively in the perfect tenses^ and reverter, -verti, -versus sum, intr.^ used in the tenses
16. itineris faciendi: construction? App. 288; 291: G.-L. 427; 428: A. 503; 504: B. 339, 1: H.-B. 612, 1; 613: H. 623; 626.
17. dum milites convenirent, "un- til the soldiers should arrive.'*
18. diem, "time."
Be sumpturum, ' 'that he should take." ad deliberandum: construction?
App. 287; 293: G.-L. 426; 432, R.: A. 502;
506: B. 338, 3 : H.-B. 611 ; 612,111 : H. 624; 628.
19. si quid vellent, " if they wanted anything." Why quid? Ax>V- 174 :> G.-L. 315: A. 310, «: B. 91, 5: H.-B. 276, 1: H. 186.
20. reverterentur, **they should come again." This is a principal clause in indirect discourse, but the sub- junctive is used instead of the Infinitive because an imperative was used in the
direct form. Caesar said si quid vultis, revertiminl, "if you want anything, come again." The third (cf. 2, 5 and 3, 17) important fact about indirect discourse is that all imperatives of the direct form become subjunctives in the indirect form: App. 267: G.-L. 652: A. 588: B. 316: H.-B. 534, 2; 538: H. 642.
Third References : Predicate nouns and adjectives Agreement of adjeci-ives Partitive genitive Subject of infinitive Substantive volitive {or purpose) clause Causal clauses with quod, etc. Infinitive in indirect discourse Gerund Gerundive
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
69
8, Interea ea legione quam secum habebat militibusque qui ex provincia convenerant, a lacu Lemanno, qui in flumen Rhodanum influit, ad montem luram, qui fines Sequanorum ab Helvetiis dividit, milia passuum xix murum in altitiidinem pedum sedecim f ossamque perducit. Eo opere perf ecto praesidia 6 disponit, eastella communit, quo facilius, si se invito transire
formed on the present stem [re— f verto, turn], turn back, come back, return, i^ 1. interea, adv., in the meantime, meanwhile. 4.
3. influo, -fluere, -fluxi, , intr.
[fluo, flow], flow into, empty into. ^
4. undeviginti (XIX), card. num. adj., indecl. [unus, one-fde, from-f-vigintl, twenty], nineteen. 2.
mtirus, -i, w., a wall. ^
altltudo, -inis,/. [altus, high, deep], height; depth; thickness {of tim- ber). ^
6. pes, pedis, m., the foot; a foot, 11.65 inches in length; pedibus, on foot; pedem referre, retreat. ^
sedecim (XVI), card. num. adj. , indecl., sixteen. 2.
fossa, -ae,/. [pf.part.fem. o/fodio, dig], trench, ditch. ^
perducd, -ducere, -duxi, -ductum,
tr. [dtico, lead], lead through or along, conduct, bring over, bring; construct, extend; influence, win .over; draw out, prolong. 4.
opus, operis, n., w^ork, labor; mili- tary work or works, fortifications, de- fenses; a work of engineering or archi- tecture; nattira et opere, by nature and art; opera, crafts. ^
praesidium, -dl, n. [praesideo. guard], guard, garrison; safeguard, pro- tection; fortification, stronghold; help, aid; safety. ^
6. dispono, -ponere, -posui, -posl- tum, tr. [pono, place], place apart or about; distribute, arrange, station. 2.
castellum, -i, n. [castrum, fort], fortress, redoubt. ^
communia, 4, tr. [munio, fortify], fortify strongly, intrench. 1.
QUO, conj. [abL case form of qui, who.
Chap. 8. Caesar prevents the Hel- vetii from crossing the Rhone.
1. legione militibusque : case ? App. 143: G.-L. 401, R. 1: A. 409: B. 218, 10: H.-B. 423, a: H. 476.
2. a lacu ... ad montem: see map, p. 70.
4. milia: case? App. 130: G.-L. 335: A. 425: B. 181: H.-B. 387: H. 417.
milia passuum XIX = about \7y2 English miles. This is the distance from the lake to Pas de I'Ecluse, fol- lowing the windings of the river. Cae- sar's plain statement is that he con- structed a wall and a trench nineteen miles in length. Napoleon III believed that the banks of the river were so steep for most of the distance that no artificial fortifications were needed, and the map on p. 70 shows the only places where he believed that Caesar con-
structed the wall and trench— a total of about three miles. Napoleon's view is generally accepted, but there are good grounds for doubting its correctness.
in altitiidinem pedum sedecim, lit. "of sixteen feet into height" = ' 'sixteen feet high." pedum: App. 100: G.-L. 365, 2: A. 345, b: B. 203, 2: H.-B. 355: H. 440, 3. The "section of Caesar's wall," set into the map, p. 70, makes clear the method of constructing this wall. The top of the bank was cut down so as to make a steep front sixteen feet high: this was the murus. The earth which w^as dug out was simply thrown down the hill. A line of palisades was set on top, to serve as a breastwork for the Roman soldiers.
6. disponit, "stationed at several points." Caesar had too few men to man the entire line. He therefore sta-
70
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 8
conarentvir, prohibere posset. Ubi ea dies quam constituerat
cum legatis venit et legati ad eum reverterunt, negat se more
et exemplo populi Eomani posse iter ulli per provinciam dare ;
10 et, si vim facere conentur, prohibiturum ostendit. Helvetii
which], in order that, so that, that. ^ invitus, -a, -um, adj., against one's
wish or will, unwilling, reluctant; se
Invito, against his will. ^ 8. venio, venire, veni.ventum.m^r.,
come, arrive, go, advance; in spem
venire, have hopes; pass, often imper.,
as ventum est, they came, it came,
€tc. ^
negd, 1, tr, and intr., say no, refuse, say . . . not. 1;
9. exemplum, -i, n,, example, prece- dent. 2.
10. ostendo, -tendere, -tendi, -ten- turn, tr. [ohs-htendo, stretch], stretch before ; present, show, bring into view, reveal; tell, declare; point out, men- tion. ^
tioned detachments (praesidia) in cas- tella, at suitable points, and of course had pickets all along the line. At an alarm the nearest detachments were to run to the threatened point.
G.-L. 409: A. 419, a; 420, 1: B. 227, 1, 2, a: H.-B. 421, 1: H. 489, 1.
8. negat se posse, ''he said that he could not."
mdre et exemplo: case? App. 142, a:
FOSSA.
CASTELLA.
p Points of Observation. 4 I 2 3 4 s
1 1 1 1 1
ROMAN MILES.
Caesar's Fortifications on the Rhone
QUO facilius posset: when is quo used
In purpose clauses? App. 225, a, 2: G.-L.
545,2: A. 531,2, a: B.282,a: H.-B. 502, 2,6:
H. 568, 7.
Si conarentur, "if they should try."
se invito: construction? App. 150:
G.-L. 399, n. 1: A. 418, a: B. 220,3: H.-B. 414, a: H. 475, 3.
10. SI . . . conentur, *'if they should try to use force."
prohibiturum (so. se . , . esse), "that he would stop them."
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
71
ea spe deiecti, navibus iunctis ratibusque compluribus factis, alii vadis Rhodani, qua minima altitude fluminis erat, non numquam interdiu, saepius noctu si perrumpere possent conati, operis munitione et militum concursu et telis repulsi hoc conatu destiterunt. 15
9. Eelinquebatur una per Sequanos via, qua SequanTs
11. deicio, -icere.-ieci, -iectum, tr, [iacio, throw. App. 7], hurl or cast down; dislodge; kill; foil, disap- point. Hs
navis, -is,/., ship, boat; navis lon- ga, galley, ship of war; navis one- raria, transport. :j:
iungo, iungere, iunxi, iunctum, tr., join or unite together, attach, con- nect. 4.
ratis, -is, /.,raft. 2.
complures, -a, adj, [plus, more], several, many ; a great many. ^
12. parvus, -a, -um,a(ij., little,small, insignificant; comp., minor, minus, lesser, smaller; shorter; minus, as noun, less; sup., minimus, -a, -um, least, very small, sf:
13. numquam, adv. [ne-+umquam, ever], not ever, never; non numquam, sometimes. 3.
interdiii, adv. [dies, day], during the day, by day. 1.
ado.
[ nox, night ], by
noctu, night. 4.
perrumpo, -rumpere, -rupi, -rup- tum, tr. and intr. [rump5, break], break through, force one's way through, force a passage. 1.
14. munltio, -onis, /. [munio, for- tify], fortifying; fortification, rampart, works, intrenchments. Hs
concursus, -us, m. [concurro, run], a running together, attack, onset; col- lision. 2.
teium, -i, n., a weapon for fighting at a distance, missile, dart, javelin. ^
repello, repellere, reppuli, repul- sum, tr. [re— hpell5, beat, drive], beat or drive back, repel, repulse. 4.
15. conatus, -us,m. [cdnor, try], at- tempt, undertaking. 1.
desista, -sistere, -stiti, -stitum, intr. [sisto, stand], abandon, cease, give up. 4.
1. relinqu^, -linquere, -llqui, -He-
11. ea spe deiecti, lit. "cast down from this expectation*' = "disappointed in this expectation.'* spe: case? App. 134: G.-L. 390, 2: A. 402: B. 214, 2: H.-B. 408,2; footnote: H. 464.
navibus iunctis, "by joining to- gether boats," and thus making a pon- toon bridge.
12. alii: we should expect eome cor- resi)onding word in the previous phrase, navibus . . . factis. The meaning is that most of the Helvetii tried to cross by boats and rafts, but others by fords.
13. Si possent, "(to see) whether they could." For this use of si, see App. 264, b: G.-L. 460, 1, 5; 467: A. 576, a: B. 300, 3: H.-B. 582, 2, a: H. 649, II, 3.
14. concursu: cf.note on disponit, 1.6.
repulsi, "were repulsed and." 15. conatu is an ablative of separa- tion.
Third References : Accusative of extent of space Ablative of separation Ablative of means Ablative absolute
Chap. 9-15. The Helvetii march out through the territory of the Se- quani. Caesar, with a reinforced army, cuts to pieces a fourth of them and follows the rest.
Chap. 9. The Helvetii obtain per- mission from the Sequani to pass through their country.
1. una via, "only the way." This was through Pas de I'Ecluse, the way mentioned in 6, 2.
qua, "and by this." Case? App. 144:
72
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 9
invitis propter angustias Ire non poterant. HJs cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legatos ad Dumnorigem Haeduum mittunt, ut eo deprecatore a Sequanis impetrarent. 5 DuniDorix gratia et largitione apud Sequanos plurimum poterat et Helvetiis erat amicus, quod ex ea civitate Orgetorigis filiam in matrimonium duxerat, et cupiditate regni adductus novis rebus studebat et quam plurimas civitates suo beneficio habere obstrictas volebat. Itaque rem suscipit et a Sequanis
turn, tr. [re— {-linquo, leave], leave behind, leave, abandon ; pass., be left, re- main. He
via, -ae, /.. way, road, route; jour- ney, march. >fc
2. propter, prep, with ace. [prope, near], on account of, because of, in consequence of. ^
angustiae, -arum,/, pi. [angustus, narrow], narrowness; a narrow place or pass, strait, defile; straits, difficulties, perplexity, jf:
3. spontis, gen., and sponte, abl. (ob- solete nom., spons), /., of one's own accord, willingly, voluntarily; by one's self. 2.
4. deprecator, m. [deprecor, plead for], mediator, intercessor. 1.
impetro, l, tr. [in+patro, accom- plish], obtain (by request, entreat?/, exer- tion), accomplish, succeed in obtaining (one's request); impetrare a (ab), gain permission from, persuade. ^
6. gratia, -ae,/. [gratus, pleasing],
favor, good will, gratitude, esteem, in- fluence, popularity; gratias agere, thank; gratiam habere, to feel grate- ful ; gratiam referre, to return a favor; banc gratiam referre, to return a favor in this way; gratiam inire, to gain favor; gratia following a gen., for the purpose of, in order to. ^
largitio, -onis, /. [largior, bribe], bribery. 1.
8. novus, -a, -um,a(?i.,new,novel, un- usual; fresh; res novae, a change of government, revolution; sup., novis- simus, -a, -um, latest, last; as noun or tuith agmen, those in the rear, the rear, jjc
studeo, -ere, -ui, , intr., be eager
or zealous; desire, strive after, devote one's self to; pay attention to; accus- tom one's self to. ^
beneficium, -ci, n. [bene, well+ facio, do], well-doing, benefit, favor, kindness. H«
9. obstringd, -stringere, -strinxi,
G.-L. 389: A. 429, a: B. 218, 9: H.-B. 426: H. 476.
Sequanis invitis, "if the Sequani should refuse." Ablative absolute.
2. cum possent: mode? App.239: G.-L. 586: A. 549: B. 286, 2: H.-B. 526: H. 598.
sua sponte, "by their own efforts" or **by themselves." The phrase usually means "of their own accord."
3, Dumnorigem: this is the Dum- norix who is mentioned in 3, 13 as having conspired with Orgetorix. Although that plot had failed he was still seeking a chance to make himself king.
4. ut impetrarent is a clause of pur- pose.
eo deprecatore, lit. "he being media- tor" = "by his mediation."
6. gratia: case? App. 138: G.-L. 408: A. 404: B. 219: H.-B. 444: H. 475.
6. Helvetiis: case? App. 122: G.-L. 359: A. 384: B. 192, 1: H.-B. 362, footnote 3, a: H. 434,2.
8. rebus: case? App. 115: G.-L. 346» R. 2: A. 367: B. 187, II: H.-B. 362, foot- notes, b: H. 426, 1.
su5 . . . obstrictas, lit. "to hold bound by his kindness" = "to keep under ob- ligations."
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, BC. 58
73
impetrat ut per fines siios Helvetios ire patiantur, obsidesque lo uti inter sese dent perficit: Sequani, ne itinere Helvetios prohibeant; Helvetii, ut sine maleficio et iniuria transeant.
10. Oaesari renuntiatur Helvetiis esse in animo per agrum Sequanorum et Haeduorum iter in Santonum fines facere, qui*^ non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in pro- vincia. Id si fieret, intellegebat magno cum periculo provinciae ^
-strictum, tr. [stringo, tie], bind, hold under obligations, pledge. 2.
itaque, conj. [it a, so], and so, there- fore, accordingly. ^
10. obses, -idis, m. and /, [obsideo, blockade], one that is guarded, hostage; pledge, security. >f:
1. renuntio.i, ^r.[re-4-nuiitius,nies- sage], bring back word, bring news, report; declare elected. ^^
2. SantonI, -orum, or Santonea, -um, m. (Dcd), the Santoni (san'to-ni), or Santones (san'to-nez). 3.
3. Tolosates, -ium.w., theTolosates (tol'^o-sa'tez), the people of 2'olosa. 1.
4. intellego,-legere,-lexi,-lectum, tr. [inter+lego, choose, select], select or distinguish between; understand; know; see, perceive, realize; find out, learn. 5|«
10. Obsides: all through Caesar's narrative we find that states were obliged to bind themselves to carry out their agreements by giving hostages. The hostages were usually the children of the most influential men of the state, and were liable to enslavement or death if the state failed to fulfill its agree- ment.
11. Sequani, Helvetii: sc. obsides dent; i.e. the Sequani bound themselves not to stop the Helvetii, etc. The clauses are substantive volitive clauses, objects of the implied phrase "bind themselves. ' '
Third References : Dative with special verbs Dative with adjectives
Chap. 10. Caesar brings more troops from Italy.
1. Caesari: case? App. 114, c: G.-C 345: A. 362; 365: B. 187,1: H.-B. 365: PI. 424; 425,1.
renuntiatur: tense? App. 190, a: G.-L. 229: A. 469: B. 259, 3: H.-B. 491, 1: H. 532, 3. Caesar had sent out spies and scouts to report the movements of the Helvetii.
Helvetiis: case? App. 117: G.-L. 349: A. 373: B. 190: H.-B. 374: H. 430.
esse is the subject of renuntiatur,
2. facere is the subject of esse.
3. non longe: the distance is really about 130 miles, but the Helvetii would be more dangerous in the territory of the Santones than in their own country, because they would no longer be hemmed in by natural barriers. Caesar hM rea- son to fear that either the Helvetii or the Gauls whom they should drive from their homes would raid the Province; and since it was his duty to protect the Province he was justified in forcing the Helvetii to remain at home. He does not choose to add, however, that this movement of the Helvetii gave him an excellent opportunity to interfere in the affairs of Gaul, and thereby fitted in with his plans for the conquest of the country.
i 4. id si fieret, "if this should be car- ried out," is a subordinate clause in in- direct discourse, depending on futurum: mode? App. 269: G.-L. 650: A. 580: B. 314: H.-B. 534, 2, II: H. 643. Caesar's thought was, "if this shall be carried out [future indicative], it will, etc.'*
magno . . . futurum, "that it would be (attended) with great danger to the province." provinciae is a genitive.
74
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 10
5 futurum ut homines bellicosos, populi Eomani inimicos, locis patentibus maximeque frumentariis finitimos haberet. Ob eas causas ei munitioni quam fecerat T. Labienum legatum praeficit; ipse in Italiam magnis itineribus contendit duasque ibi legiones conscribit, et tres, quae circum Aquileiam hiema-
io bant, ex hibernis educit, et qua proximum iter in ulteriorem
5. bellicosus.-a, -um, adj. [bellum, war], of or full of war, warlike. 3.
6. patens, -entis, adj. [pateo, be open], open, unobstructed, accessible. 1.
frumentarius, -a,-um, adj. [frumen- tum, grain], of or pertaining to grain; of places, fruitful, productive of grain; res frumentaria, supply of grain, pro- visions. ^
7. T. fl&6r./o/'Titus(ti'tus),ai?owan praenomen. ^
Labienus, -i, m., Titus Atius Labie- nus(ti'tusa'sliyusla/'bi-e'nus),(7a6;sar'5 most trusted lieutenant in the Gallic War. In the Civil War he aided Pompey and ivas slain at Munda 45 B.C. ^
8. praeficio, -ficere, -feci, -feetum, tr. [facio, make], make before; place over, put In command of, put at the head (5f, place in charge of. 4.
Italia, -ae, /., Italy, sometimes {in Caesar) including Cisalpine Gaul, hut usu- ally including only the rest of the peniU' sula. sjc
9. ibi, adv., there. In that place. h« conscribo, -scribere, -scripsi,
-scriptum, tr. [scrib5, write], write to- gether in a list; levy, enroll, enlist; write. :;<
circum, prep, with ace. [circus, a cir- cle], around, about, near. 2.
Aquileia, -ae,/., Aquileia (ak"wi-le'- ya], a city of Cisalpine Gaul. 1.
Memo, 1, intr. [hiems, winter], pass the winter, winter. ^
10. hiberna, -orum, n. [sc. castra, camp], winter camp, winter quarters. 5|c
educo, -ducere, -dtixi, -ductum, tr. [duco, lead], lead out or forth; draw (a siuord). :}«
5. tit haberet is the subject of futu- rum: mode? App. 229, b: G.-L. 553, 3: A. 569, 2: B. 297,2: H.-B. 521, 3, o: H. 571, 1.
inimicos is here used as a noun, and therefore a genitive depends on it. If used as an adjective it would govern the dative.
lOCis is probably a dative depending on finitimos, though it may be an abla- tive of place.
6. haberet: sc. provincia.
7. munitioni: case? App. 116, I: G.-L. 347: A. 370, a, note 1: B. 187, III, 2: H.-B. 376, a: H. 429, 1.
legatum: see Int. 38.
8. italiam: i.e. Cisalpine Gaul,which was one of the provinces under his pro- consular command.
itineribus: case? App. 142: G.-L.. 399: A. 412: B. 220, 1: H.-B. 445, 2: H. 473, 3.
9. conscribit: he did this without authority from Home. He had been given only four legions,— the one in Transalpine Gaul and the three at Aquileia. But the -situation was more serious than the Roman Senate realized. He therefore increased his army to six legions, perhaps 24,000 men. With these legions and some auxiliary troops he had to oppose 92,000 fighting men, ac- cording to the Gallic records given in chap. 29.
10. Mbernis: case? App. 134, a: G.-L.390, 1: A. 426, 1: B.229: H.-B. 408,1: H. 461.
qua proximum iter erat, * 'where there was the shortest route." He chose the pass of Mount Genevre, and the route is shown on the map facing p. 42. He did not wish to return to Geneva, for by this time the Helvetii had left their
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
75
Galliam per Alpes erat cum his quinque legionibus irecon-jj tendit. Ibi Oentrones et Graioceli et Caturiges, locis supe- rioribus occupatis, itinere exercitum prohibere conantur. Oom- pluribus his proeliJs pulsis, ab Ocelo, quod est oppidum citerioris provinciae extremum, in fines Vocontiorum ulterioris provinciae i^ die septimo pervenit ; inde in Allobrogum fines, ab Allobrogibus in Segusiavos exercitum ducit. Hi sunt extra provinciam trans Ehodanum primi.
1 i . Helvetii iam per angustias et fines Sequanorum suas copias traduxerant, et in Haeduorum fines pervenerant
11. Alpes, -ium, /. pi (CgM). the Alpes (al'pez), better, the Alps. H«
quinque (V), card. num. adj., indecL, five. 4.
12. Ceutrones, -um, w.(Dg), the Ceu- trones (su'tro-aez). 1.
Graioceli, -drum, m. (Dg), the Gra- ioceli (gra-y 6s' e-li). 1.
Caturiges, -um, m. (Dg), the Catu- riges (kaV'u-ri' jez). 1.
superior, -ius, adj. [comp. of supe- rus, high. App. 44], (1) of place, upper, higher, superior; (2) of time, previous, earlier, former. H«
14. Ocelum, -i, n. (Dg) ,Ocelum (6s' e- lum). 1.
clterior, -ius, comp. adj. (App. 43), nearer, hither; Gallia Citerlor (=Cis-
alpina), Cisalpine Gaul, on the nearer {Italian) side of the Alps. H«
15. Vocontii, -orum, m. (Df), the Vo- contii(vo-k6n'shyi). 1.
16. Septimus, -a, -um, ord. num. adj. [septem, seven], seventh, hj
inde, adv., from that place, thence; then, thereupon. H^
17. Segusiavi, -orum, m. (Def), the Segusiavi (seg''u-shi-a'vi). 1.
extra, adv., and prep, with ace, out of, outside of, beyond, without. 1.
18. primus, -a, -um, adj., sup. (App. 43), first, foremost; first part of; pi. as noun, the first, the front rank or ranks; leaders, chiefs ; in primis, especially. *
2. traduco, -diicere, -duxi, -duc- tum, tr. [trans-|-diico,lead],lead across,
country. It is estimated that Caesar spent two months in securing his rein- forcements.
11. legionibus: case? App. 140: G.-L. 392, R. 1: A. 413: B. 222: H.-B. 420: H. 473, 1.
13. compluribus . . . proeliis: Eng- lish order, /us pulsls (ablative abso- lute) compluribus proeliis (ablative of means).
15. provinciae: case? App. 99: G.-L. 362: A. 343: B. 198: H.-B. 339: H. 440, 1.
17. In Segusiavos: i.e. into that part of their territory which lies between the Rhone and the Arar. He encamped on the heights above the city of Lyons. Labienus must have rejoined him there.
Third References: Possessive genitive Indirect object Dative with compound verbs Ablative of place from which Ablative of accompaniment Historical present Subordinate clause in indirect course
dis-
Chap. 11. Three states ask Caesar to protect them against the Helvetii.
1. iam, "by this time." angustias: at Pas de TEcluse.
2. pervenerant: i.e. the head of their column had crossed the Arar, though its rear was some miles from
76
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 11
eorumque agros populabantur. Haedui, cuin se suaque ab iis defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum 5 auxilium : Ita se omni tempore de populo Eomano meritos esse lit paene in conspectu exercitus nostri agri vastari, liberi in servitutem abducT, oppida expugnari non debuerint. Eodem tempore Ambarri, necessarii et consangninei Haeduorum,
lead over; take across, transport; trans- fer, convey, pass on ; win over. ^
3. populor, 1, tr., devastate, ravage, lay waste. 4.
4. defendo, -fendere, -fendi, -fen- sum, tr. [fendo, strike] , keep or ward off, repel; defend, protect, sfc
6. auxilium,-li,/i. [augeo, increase] , help, assistance, aid; pL, auxiliary troops; reinforcements. H«
ita, adv., so, thus, in this way; as follows; ut . . . ita, in proportion as ... in such proportion, as ... so; non ita, not so very, not very; ita , . . ut, just . . .as; so . . . that, :1c
mereo, and mereor, 2, ^r., deserve, merit, be worthy of; win, earn, incur (odium); serve as a soldier {i.e. earn pay). 3.
6. paene, ac^iJ., nearly, almost. ^
conspectus, -us, m. [conspicio, look at], sight, view ; presence. ^
vasto, 1, tr. [vastus, waste], lay waste, ravage, devastate. 3.
liberi, -orum, m., [liber, free], the free members of the household {as opposed to slaves)', children. ^
7. servitus, -utis, /. [servus, a slave], slavery, servitude. ^
abduco, -ducere, -duxi, -ductum, tr. [duco, lead], lead away, draw or carry off, withdraw. 1.
expugno, 1, tr. [pugno, fight], take or carry by storm, capture by assault ; overpower, sack. H«
debed, 3, tr. [de+habeo, have], have, or keep from some one; owe; with inf., ought, must; pass., be due. >fj
8. Ambarri, -orum, m. (Cf), the Am- barri (am-bar'l), clients of the Hae- dm. 2.
necessarius, -a, -um, adj. [necesse, necessary], necessary, requisite, press- ing; with tempus, critical; as noun, kinsman, friend. ^
consanguineus, -a, -um, adj. [san- guis, blood], of the same blood; as noun, kinsman, relative. 3.
that river. They had traveled only about a hundred miles during the two months of Caesar's absence. Much of this time, however, had been spent in negotiations with the Sequani. Their line of march must have been at least fif- ty miles in length, and their progress was necessarily slow, especially at the pass. For their route see the map facing p. 42.
3. cum possent: causal. suaque, ''and their property."
4. rogatum: form and use? App. 295: G.-L. 435, n. 3: A. 509: B. 340, 1, a: H.-B. 618,0: H. 632,1; 633.
6. omni tempore, "on every occa- sion."
meritos esse depends on the idea of "saying" which is implied in rogatum. About sixty years before, the Haedui had been called "brothers" of the Roman people, and ever since that time their relations with Rome had been friendly; but we do not know that they had ever been of assistance to Rome.
6. Ut agri vastari non debuerint, "that their lands ought not to have been devastated. ' debuerint: mode? App. 226: G.-L,. 552: A. 537, 1: B. 284, 1: H.-B. 521, 2: H. 570.
nostri = Romdnl. It agrees with exer- citus.
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
77
Caesarem certiorem faciunt sese depopulatis agris non facile ab oppidis vim hostium prohibere. Item Allobroges qui trans lo Rhodanumvicospossessionesque habebant fuga se ad Caesarem recipiunt et demonstrant sibi praeter agri solum nihil esse reliqui. Quibus rebus adductus Caesar non exspectandum sibi statuit dum, omnibus fortunis sociorum consumptis, in Santonos Helve til pervenirent. is
12. Flumen est Arar, quod per fines Haeduorum et
9. depopulor, 1, tr. [populor, lay
waste], lay waste, ravage. 2.
10. hostis, -is, w.,/., (public) enemy or foe in distinction from inimicus, o> personal enemy; pi., the enemy. Hj
11. possessi6,-6nis,/.[possideo, pos- sess], possession, occupation; a posses- sion, property. 4.
fuga, -ae, /., flight; in fugam coni- cere or dare, put to flight. h«
12. demonstr6,i,^r. [monstrd.show], point out, show, explain, describe; de- clare, state, say. Hi
praeter, prep, with ace. [prae, before], "before; beyond, past; contrary to; in addition to, except, besides. ^
solum, -i, w., bottom; ground, soil, «arth. 1.
nihil, indecl. noun, n., nothing; with gen., no, none of; ace. as adv., not, not at
all, by no means; n5n nihil, some- what. ^
13. exspectd, l, tr. [specto, look at], look out for, await, expect ; wait to see ; anticipate, apprehend. H«
14. statuo, statuere, statu! , statu- turn, tr. [status, position], put in posi- tion, set up, place; determine, resolve; judge, pass sentence; think, consid- er. ^
fortuna, -ae, f. [fors, chance], for- tune, luck, chance, opportunity; lot, condition; good fortune, success; prop- erty, estate. ^
consumd, -sumere, -sumpsi, -sumptum, tr. [stimo, take], take together or all at once; devour, consume, destroy; use up, waste, pass. 3.
1. Arar, Araris (ace. -im) , m. (CDf g) , the Arar (a'rar), the modern Saone. 4.
9. sese depopulatis agris, "that their lands had been laid waste and that they," etc. In a number of deponent verbs the perfect participle is used with a passive meaning.
10. Allobroges, qui . . . habebant: most of the Allobroges were south of the Rhone and were not troubled ; but the map shows that some were north of the river and on the route of the Helvetii.
12. sibi nihil esse reliqui, "that to them there was nothing of a re- mainder" = "that they had nothing left." sibi: case? App. 117: G.-L. 349: A. 373: B. 190: H.-B. 374: H.430. reliqui is used as a noun and is a partitive genitive: App. 101, o: G.-L.. 369, R. 3: A. 346, a, 1: -B. 201, 2, a: H.-B. 346, a: H. 440, 5, note.
13. quibus: use of relative? App.
173, a: G.-L. 610, R. 1: A. 303, 2: B.251,6: H.-B. 284, 8: H. 510.
n5n exspectandum (sc. esse) sibi, *'that it was not to be waited by him"= *'that he must not wait." exspec- tandum: construction? App. 285, II, a: G.-L. 251, 1: A. 194, b: B. 337, 7, &, 1: H.-B. 6D0, 3; 162: H.237. sibi: case? App. 118: G.-L. 215, 2: A. 374, a: B. 189, 1: H.-B. 373, I: H. 431.
14. dum pervenirent, "until they should arrive."
Third References: Dative of possessor Relative instead of demonstrative
Chap. 12. Caesar destroys the Tig- urini, the rearguard of the Helvetii.
1. flumen est Arar, "there is a river (named) the Arar. "
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CAESAR^S GALLIC WAR, I, 12
Sequanorum in Rhodanum infiuit, incredibili lenitate, ita ut oculis in utram partem jfluat iudicari non possit. Id Helvetii ratibus ac lintribus iunctis transibant. Ubi per exploratores 6 Caesar certior f actus est tres iam partes copiarum Helve tios id fltimen traduxisse, quartam fere partem citra fiumen Ararim reliquam esse, de tertia vigilia cum legionibus tribus e castris profectus ad earn partem pervenit quae nondum flumen trans-
2. Incredibilis, -e, adj. [iii--f cre- dlbilis, credible], incredible, unlikely; extraordinary. 4.
lenitas, -tatis, /. [lenis, smooth], smoothness, gentleness. 1.
3. oculUB, -1, m. , eye. 3.
uter, utra, utrum, gen. utrius (App. 33), adj. (1) as interrog., which one or which of two; (2) as rel.y the one who, o/ ^wo, whichever. 1.
iudic5, 1, tr. [itidex, a judge], pass judgment on, judge, decide, determine; think, consider. He
4. linter, -tris, /., skiff, rowboat, canoe. 2.
explorator, -oris, m. [explore,
search out], explorer, scout, spy. H«
6. Quartus, -a, -um, ord. num. adj, [Quattuor, four], fourth, ip.
citra, prep, with acc.^ on this side of. 3.
7. vigilia, -ae, /. [vigil, awake], wakefulness, watching; a watch, one of the four equal divisions of the night, used by the Eomans in reckoning time. >J:
castrum, -i, n., fort; p?., castra, castrorum, fortified camp, camp; cas- tra facere or ponere, pitch camp; castra movere, break up camp. h«
2. incredibili lenitate, "of remark- ably slow current": descriptive abla- tive.
ut possit: mode? App. 226: G.-L.. 552: A. 537, 1: B. 284, 1: H.-B. 521, 2: H. 570.
Why is the present tense used? Strictly because Caesar meant "can," not "could." Every subjunctive tense has a meaning and is used because that mean- ing is needed in the sentence ; at the same time, however, they are almost invaria- bly used in accordance with the rule for sequence of tenses. Learn once for all this very important rule, and the dis- tinction between principal and histor- ical tenses: App. 202; 203: G.-L. 509; 510 511: A. 482, 1, 2; 483: B.266, B; 267, 1,2, 3 H.-B. 476, foot-note 2: H. 198; 543; 544 545.
3. in , . . fluat, "in which direction it flows": mode? App. 202: G.-L. 467: A. 573; 574: B. 300, 1, a: H.-B. 534, 3, III; 537, &: H. 649, n.
4. ratibus, lintribus: ablatives of means.
iunctis modifies only lintribus.
transibant: at a point about twelve miles north of Caesar's camp. Excava- tions in this vicinity have brought to light numerous graves which give evi- dence of hasty interment, as if after a battle.
5. tres . . . traduxisse, "that the Hel- vetii had already conveyed three-fourths of their troops across this river." The verb traduxisse governs two objects,— partes depending on the meaning of the simple verb duco, Jlumen dependiDg on the meaning of the preposition trans: App. 127: G.-L. 331, R. 1: A. 388, b'. B. 175, 2, a, 1: H.-B. 391, 2: H. 406.
6. citra : i.e. on the east.
7. de tertia vigilia, "just after (the beginning of) the third watch"="just after midnight."
legionibus: how many men in a legion? Int. 33.
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
79
ierat. Eos impeditos et inopinantes aggressus magnam partem eorum concidit; reliqui sese fugae mandarunt atque in lo proximas silvas abdiderunt. Is pagus appellabatur Tigurinus; nam omnis civitas Helvetia in quattuor pagos divisa est. Hie pagus unus, cum domo exisset patrum nostrorum memoria, L. Cassium consulem interfecer^t et eius exercitum sub iugum miserat. Ita sive casu sive consilio deornm immortalium, 15 quae pars civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem popul5
9. impeditus, -a, -um, adj, [pf. part, of impedio.liiiider], hindered, burdened, impeded, delayed; hindered or bur- dened by baggage ; occupied or engaged in; at a disadvantage; of places^ diffi- cult of passage. H«
inoplnans, -antis, adj. [in-+opi- nans, expecting], not expecting, not suspecting, unawares, off one's guard. 2.
aggredior, -gredi, -gressus sum, tr. [ad-fgradior, step], advance to or against; attack. 4.
10. concidd, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum, tr. [caedo, cut], cut down, slay, kill; cutoff. 3.
mand5, 1, tr. [manus, hand+do, give], give into one's hands; entrust, commit ; enjoin, order, command. ^
11. silva, -ae, /., a wood, forest, woods. :i«
abdo, -dere, -didi, -ditum, tr. [do, put], put away, remove, withdraw, hide, conceal. ^
pagus, -1, m., village; district, prov- ince, canton. ^
Tigurinus, -a, -um, of or belonging to the Tigurini; pi. as noun, Tigurini (Cg) , the Tigurini ( tig''u-ri' ni) . 2.
12. nam, co/y., for. hc
quattuor (IV), card. num. adj. winded., four. Hi
14. interficlo, -ficere, -feci, -fec- tum, tr. [facio, make], make away with, kill, destroy. ^
15. Sive and seu, conj. [si, if+ve, or], or if, if; or; whether; sive . . . sive, either ... or, whether . . . or, to see if ... or. :J:
casus, -us, m. [cado, fall], what he- falls; accident, chance; misfortune, fate; crisis; casu, by chance, i^
deus, -i {nom. pi., dii; dat. pi., dis), m., god, deity. 4.
immortalis, -e, adj. [in-+mortalis, mortal], not mortal, immortal. 3.
16. insignis, -e, adj. [signo, mark], marked, remarkable ; n. as noun^ mark, sign; ornament, trapping. 4.
calamitas, -tatis, /., misfortune, disaster, defeat. 5fc
10. mandarunt = mandaverunt: form? App. 72: G.-L. 131, 1; A. 181, a: B. 116, 1: H.-B. 163, 1: H. 238.
in Silvas: from the English point of view we might expect the ablative (place where), but the verb implies mo- tion into,— "ran into and hid."
13. cum exisset: mode? App. 240; 242, a: G.-L. 585: A. 546, notes 1, 2, 3: B. 288, 1, B: H.-B. 524: H. 600,11, 1. exiSSet —exiiaset.
memoria: case? App. 152: G.-L. 393: A. 423: B. 231: H.-B. 439: H. 487.
14. Cassium, sub iugum: cf. 7, 13, 14.
16. quae pars . . . ea, "that part which." Not infrequently the ante- cedent is thus expressed in the relative clause instead of the principal clause, and the relative clause then precedes the antecedent.
popul5 : the compound Infero governs the indirect object.
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CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, I, 13
Romano intulerat, ea prmceps poenas persolvit. Qua in re Caesar non solum publicas sed etiam privatas iniurias ultus est, quod eius soceri L. Pisonis avum, L. Pisonem legatum,
20 Tigurini eodem ])roelio quo Cassium interfecerant.
13, Hoc proelio facto, reliquas copias Helvetiorum ut consequi posset, pontem in Arari faciendum curat atque ita exercitum traducit. Helvetii repentmo eius adventu commoti, cum id quod ipsi diebus xx aegerrime confecerant, ut flumen
6 translrent, ilium uno die fecisse intellegerent, legatos ad
17. persolvo, -solvere, -solvi.-solu- tum, tr. [solvo, pay], pay in fuU; suffer {punishment). 1.
18. solum, adv. [solus, alone], only, merely. ^
publicus, -a, -um, adj. [populus, people], of the state or people, com- mon, public; n. as noun, public, pub- lic view; res piiblica, common weal, state. ^
sed, conj., but, but yet (a stronger ad- versative than autem or at), h^
ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus sum, tr., avenge; punish, take vengeance on. 3.
19. socer, -eri, m., father-in-law. 1. avus, -i, m., grandfather. 2.
Piso, -onis, m., Lucius Calpumius Plso (lu'shyus kal-per' ni-iis pi' so),
killed in the defeat of Cassius's army by the Tigurini, 107 B.C. 1.
2. c6nsequor,-seQui,-secutussum, tr. [sequor, follow], follow up; go after, pursue; reach, overtake; gain, attain, accomplish; ensue, succeed. ^
euro, 1, tr. [cur a, care], care for, take care of, provide for; with gerun- dive (App. 285, II, b), have, order. 4.
3. repeiitinus,-a,-um,ac?i. [repens, sudden], sudden, unexpected, hasty. 3.
commoveo, -movere, -movi, -mo- tum, tr. [moveo, move], move or excite thoroughly, rouse, agitate, alarm. ^
4. viginti (XX), card. num. adj., indecl.y twenty. ^
aegre, adv. [aeger, ill], hardly, with difficulty, scarcely. Oomp.^ aegrius; sup., aegerrime (App. 40). 3.
17. princeps persolvit, "was the first to pay."
19. Note the accumulation of apposi- tives, — Pisonis with soceri, Pisdnem with avum, legatum with Pisonem.
soceri : in the year 59 Caesar had mar- ried Calpurnia, daughter of the Lucius Calpurnius Piso mentioned in 6, 15 as one of the consuls for the year 58.
20. QUO Cassium: the same verb in- terfecerant belongs in the relative clause and in the principal clause.
Third References : Ablative of time Result clause Narrative cum clause
Chap. 13. The Helvetii haughtily •iok for peace.
1. ut would usually stand before reliquas.
2. pontem faciendum curat, '*he had a bridge made": construction? App. 285, II, b: G.-L. 430: A. 500, 4: B. 337, 7, 6,2: H.-B. 612, III: H. 622. This bridge was probably of boats, and was made by the chief of engineers : see Int. 40.
in Arari, "over the Arar.'*
4. cum intellegerent, * 'since they saw," or better "seeing." The object of intellegerent \^ ilium fecisse. id is the object of fecisse. ut translrent, "(namely) the crossing of the river," is in apposition with id: mode? App. 229, a: G.-L. 553, 1: A. 568: B. 297, 1: H.-B. 521,3, a: H. 571,4.
5. legatds, "envoys."
WAR WITH THE HELVETII, B.C. 58
81
eum mittunt; cuius legationis Divico prmceps fuit, qui bello Cassiano dux Helvetiorum fuerat. Is ita cum Caesare egit: Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in cam partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios ubi eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset; sin bello persequi perseveraret, remi- lo nisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae
6. Divico, -onis, m.,Divico(div'i-ko), an Helvetian chieftain. 2.
7. Cassianus,-a,-um,«cy.,ofCassius, see Cassius. 1.
ago, agere, egl, actum, tr., set in motion; drive {of animals); move for- ward, advance (of military works) ; do, transact, carry on (of business); discuss, speak ; hold (conventum) ; give, render (gratias); plead (causam or rem); quod agitur, the matter in hand ; res agitur, something is at stake. ^
si, conj., if however, but if. 1.
10. persequor, -sequi, -secutus sum, tr. [sequor,follow], follow through, continue in; pursue, follow up; avenge. 2.
persevero, 1, intr., persist, perse- vere. 1.
reminiscor, -I, intr. [mens, mind], call to mind, remember. 1.
11. vetus, -eris, adj., old, ancient, former ; with milites, veteran. :fj
incommodum, -i, n. [incommodus,
6. Divico was an old man, for the battle was fought 49 years before.
7. The rest of this chapter and the whole of the next are in indirect dis- course. If the teacher wishes the class, at this point, to make a more detailed study of the construction than is called for by the notes, he will find help in the direct form of these speeches as printed after Book VII.
Remember the important facts al- ready learned,— that in every declara- tive sentence the principal verb will be an infinitive, and that in every subordi- nate clause the verb will be a subjunc- tive. Usually the future infinitive shows that the speaker used a future indicative, a present infinitive shows that he used a present indicative, and a perfect infinitive shows that he used a past tense of the indicative. But note that not every infinitive stands for an indicative in the direct form; for all infinitives in the direct form are re- tained unchanged in the indirect. Note that every subjunctive follows the rule of sequence of tenses: App. 202; 2G3: G.-L. 509; 510; 511: A. 482, i, 2; 483: B. 266, B; 267, 1, 2, 3: H.-B. 476, foot-note 2; H. 198; 543; 544; 545.
Si . . . faceret. *'if . . . should make." Only the sense of the passage shows that faceret stands for an orig- inal future rather than a present, and for an indicative rather than a subjunctive.
9. Helvetios is the subject of itm'da 2iiidfuturds.
e5s is the subject of esse.
ubi constituisset, "where he should have decided "= "where he should de- cide'* or "where he decided." The plu- perfect can stand equally well for the perfect, the pluperfect, or the future perfect ; but the Helvetii do not promise to return to their own country, and Caesar had not yet decided to settle them anywhere else; therefore con- stituisset must stand for a future per- fect, a tense rarely used in English.
10. perse verareJt stands for a future, like faceret, 1. 8.
reminisceretur, "he should remem- ber. ' ' Since this is a principal clause the use of the subjunctive shows that the sentence Is not declarative. App. 267: G.-L. 652: A. 588: B. 316: H.-B. 534, 2; 538: H. 642.
11. et . . . et, ''both . . . and." incommodi: i.e. the defeat of Cas- sius: case? App. 107: G.-L.. 376: A.
82
CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR,